Improve Clinical Skills

AHFS. Varenicline. Drugs.com. 2000-2014. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/monograph/chantix.html Accessed on: 2010-06-25.
Alberta Health Services . Brief Tobacco Intervention: Ready 2 Quit . YouTube . 2012. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4B74E_8ncc Accessed on: 2015-04-27.
American Academy of Family Physicians. HCPCS, CPT, & ICD-9 Codes Related to Tobacco Cessation Counseling. AAFP.org. 2011. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/Coding-list.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
American Academy of Family Physicians. HCPCS, CPT, & ICD-9 Codes Related to Tobacco Cessation Counseling. Ask and Act: A Tobacco Cessation Program. 2010. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/Coding-list.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-06.
American Academy of Pediatrics. Policy statement. Substance use screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 2011; 128(5): e1330-e1340. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/e1330.full Accessed on: 2011-12-13.
American Cancer Society. Guide for quitting smoking. American Cancer Society Website. 2009. Available at: https://www.cancer.org/healthy/stayawayfromtobacco/guidetoquittingsmoking/guide-to-quitting-smoking-toc Accessed on: 2010-06-23.
American Lung Association. Helping Smokers Quit: Tobacco Cessation Coverage 2011. American Lung Association. Fighting for Air. 2011. Available at: http://www.lung.org/stop-smoking/help-someone-quit/ Accessed on: 2012-02-02.
American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Medline Plus – Trusted Health Information for You. Medline Plus – Trusted Health Information for You. 2014. Available at: https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Audrain-McGovern J, Benowitz NL. Cigarette Smoking, Nicotine, and Body Weight. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011; 90: 164-168. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3195407/ Accessed on: 2014-10-23.
Babb S, Melarcher A, Schauer G, et al.. Quitting Smoking Among Adults — United States, 2000–2015. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2017; 65(52): 1457–1464. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6552a1.htm?s_cid=mm6552a1_e Accessed on: 2017-01-09.
Bader P, McDonald P, Selby P. An algorithm for tailoring pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation: results from a Delphi panel of international experts. Tob Control. 2009; 18: 34-42. Available at: http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/18/1/34.full.pdf Accessed on: 2010-08-26.
Breslau N, Kilbey MM, Andreski P. Nicotine withdrawal symptoms and psychiatric disorders: findings from an epidemiologic study of young adults. Am J Psychiatry. 1992; 149: 464-469. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1554030 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
CDC. Planning and Implementing Screening and Brief Intervention for Risk Alcohol Use: A Step-by-Step Guide for Primary Care Providers. National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/documents/alcoholsbiimplementationguide.pdf Accessed on: 2014-12-16.
CDC. Tobacco Use and Pregnancy . CDC’s Division of Reproductive Health. 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/tobaccousepregnancy/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-12-16.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet. CDC Website. 2010. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm Accessed on: 2010-06-15.
Center Watch. Chantix® (varenicline) receives FDA approval. Center Watch. 2000-2014. Available at: http://www.centerwatch.com/drug-information/fda-approved-drugs/drug/897/chantix-varenicline Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults in the United States. Smoking and Tobacco Use. CDCP Website. Content source: Office on Smoking and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. 2016; December 1: . Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/ Accessed on: 2017-01-09.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults — United States, 2005–2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2015; 64(44): 1233-1240. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6444a2.htm?s_cid=mm6444a2_e Accessed on: 2015-11-12.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use: Targeting the Nation’s Leading Killer. CDC Website. 2011. Available at: http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5527/
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Medicaid Benefits: Prevention. Medicaid.gov. 2014. Available at: https://www.medicaid.gov/medicaid/benefits/prevention/index.html Accessed on: 2014-11-06.
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. New Medicaid Tobacco Cessation Services. CMS. 2011. Available at: https://downloads.cms.gov/cmsgov/archived-downloads/SMDL/downloads/SMD11-007.pdf Accessed on: 2012-02-14.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS). The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; Washington, D.C.: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.. 2004. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2004/complete_report/index.htm/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Durcan MJ, Deener G, White J, Johnston JA, Gonzales D, Niaura R, Rigotti N, Sachs DP. The effect of bupropion sustained-release on cigarette craving after smoking cessation. Clinical Therapeutics. 2002; 24(4): 540-551. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12017399 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Thornton-Evans GO, Genco RJ. Prevalence of Periodontitis in Adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. Journal of Dental Research. 2012; 91: 914-20. Available at: http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/91/10/914 Accessed on: 2014-12-16.
FDA. Chantix (varenicline) may increase the risk of certain cardiovascular adverse events in patients with cardiovascular disease. FDA Safety Communication. 2011. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm259161.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. May 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63952/ Accessed on: 2013-09-26.
GlaxoSmithKline. Nicoderm CQ (nicotine) patch, extended release. DailyMed. 2012. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=93b2d1b9-83c1-40b5-b6af-90c38c8d6cef Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
GlaxoSmithKline. Nicorette (nicotine polacrilex) gum, chewing . DailyMed. 2013. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=673fd19f-69b3-4f73-b9b4-18b5f4cbf69c Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
GlaxoSmithKline. NICORETTE (nicotine polacrilex) lozenge. DailyMed. 2012. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=fdee1637-8049-4bc5-b196-b6d854c9f9f3 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
GlaxoSmithKline. ZYBAN® (bupropion hydrochloride) Sustained-Release Tablets . GSK. 2012. Available at: https://www.gsksource.com/pharma/content/dam/GlaxoSmithKline/US/en/Prescribing_Information/Zyban/pdf/ZYBAN-PI-MG.PDF Accessed on: 2013-12-05.
Glynn TJ, Manley MW. How to help your patients stop smoking- a National Cancer Institute manual for physicians. Smoking and Tobacco Control Program, National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, MD. 1998. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_help_your_patients_stop_smoking.html?id=TM1pAAAAMAAJ
Gonzales D, Rennard SI, Nides M, et al. Varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006; 296(1): 47-55. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16820546 Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Jensen CD, Cushing CC, Aylward BS, Craig JT, Sorell DM, Steele RG. Effectiveness of motivational interviewing interventions for adolescent substance use behavior change: A meta-analytic review. J of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(4): 443-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21728400 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Kozink RV, Lutz AM, Rose JE, Froeliger B, McClernon FJ. Smoking withdrawal shifts the spatiotemporal dynamics of neurocognition. Addiction Biology. 2010; 15: 480-490. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2010.00252.x/full Accessed on: 2014-10-23.
Lai DTC, Cahill K, Qin Y, Tang JL. Motivational interviewing for smoking cessation (Review). The Cochrane Collaboration. 2010. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091612 Accessed on: 2015-04-20.
Medicare Learning Network. “Incident to” Services. Medicare Learning Network. 2013. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/Outreach-and-Education/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN/MLNMattersArticles/downloads/se0441.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-06.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.
Obach RS, Reed-Hagen AE, Krueger SS, Obach BJ, O’Connell TN, Zandi KS, Miller S, Coe JW. Metabolism and disposition of varenicline, a selective alpha4beta2 acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, in vivo and in vitro. Drug Metab Dispos. 2006; 34(1): 121-30. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16221753 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Parrott A.C. Nesbitt’s Paradox resolved? Stress and arousal modulation during cigarette smoking . Addiction. 1993; 93(1): 27-39. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9624709 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
PDR Staff. Physician’s Desk Reference. Thomson Healthcare. 2003. Available at: http://www.pdr.net/ Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Resnicow K, McMaster F. Motivational Interviewing: moving from why to how with autonomy support. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act.. 2012; 9: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3330017/ Accessed on: 2014-10-13.
Shiffman CH, Jarvick ME. Smoking withdrawal symptoms in two weeks of abstinence. Journal of Psychopharmacology. 1976; 50(1): 35-39. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/827760 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Shiffman S, Dresler CM, Hajek P, Gilburt SJA, Targett DA, Strahs KR. Efficacy of a nicotine lozenge for smoking cessation. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 62: 1267-1276. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12038945 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Siu AL, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral counseling and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant women: A review of reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26389730 Accessed on: 2016-02-09.
Smedslund G, Berg RC, Hammerstrøm TK, Steirol A, Leiknes KA, Dahl HM, Karlsen K. Motivational interviewing for substance abuse . The Cochrane Library. 2011. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008063.pub2/abstract Accessed on: 2014-10-30.
Sobell LC, Sobell MB, Agrawal S. Self-change and dual recoveries among individuals with alcohol and tobacco problems: current knowledge and future directions. Alcohol Clinical Experimental Research. 2002; (12): 1936-1938. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12500127 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Stotts AL, Schmitz JM, Grabowski J. Concurrent treatment for alcohol and tobacco dependence: are patients ready to quit both?. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2003; 69: 1-7. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12536060 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Texas Department of State Health. Billing Codes Guide. Yes You Can. 2011. Available at: http://www.yesquit.org/downloads/guides/BillingCodesGuide.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-06.
Tobacco Control Legal Consortium. The Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act and the Affordable Care Act. SAMHSA. 2011. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/health-wellness/The_Mental_Health_Parity_and_Addiction_Equity_Act.pdf Accessed on: 2012-02-02.
Tonstad S, Tonnesen P, Hajek P, Williams KE, Billing CB, Reeves KR. Effect of maintenance therapy with varenicline on smoking cessation. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006; 296(1): 64-71. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16820548 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Tran K , Asakawa K, Cimon K, Moulton K, Kaunelis D, Pipe A, Selby P. Pharmacologic-based strategies for smoking cessation: clinical and cost-effectiveness analyses. Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH). 2012. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3442619/ Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Cigarette Smoke Affects Your Body. Be Tobacco Free.gov. 2014. Available at: https://betobaccofree.hhs.gov/health-effects/smoking-health/ Accessed on: 2014-12-16.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS). Reducing Tobacco Use: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga: Office on Smoking and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Dept of Health and Human Services. 2000. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2000/complete_report/index.htm Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Alcohol Alert: Alcohol and Tobacco. Alcohol Alert. 2007. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AA71/AA71.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-10.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. . Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention . 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves Novel Medication for Smoking Cessation. FDA Website. Press release, 11 May 2006. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents%2FNewsroom%2FPressAnnouncements%2F2006%2Fucm108651.htm Accessed on: 2010-06-15.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Information for Healthcare Professionals: Varenicline (marketed as Chantix) and Bupropion (marketed as Zyban, Wellbutrin, and generics). FDA Alert. 2009b. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/ucm169986.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
U.S. Preventative Services Task Force, Moyer VA. Screening and Behavioral Counseling Interventions in Primary Care to Reduce Alcohol Misuse: U.S. Preventative Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2013. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/sbirt/USPSTF_Screening_forAlcohol_5_13_13_0000605-201308060-00652.pdf Accessed on: 2014-12-16.
Walters ST, Rotgers F. Treating Substance Abuse: Theory and Technique. The Guilford Press. 2011. Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Treating-Substance-Abuse/Walters-Rotgers/9781462513512 Accessed on: 2014-10-13.
West R, Hajek P. What happens to anxiety levels on giving up smoking?. American Journal Psychiatry. 1997; 154: 1589-1592. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9356569 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
U.S. Cancer Statistics Working Group. United States Cancer Statistics: 1999–2010 Incidence and Mortality Web-based Report. Atlanta (GA): Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and National Cancer Institute. 2013. Available at: https://nccd.cdc.gov/uscs/ Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

Tobacco use is still fairly common; in the United States. Approximately 28.4% of persons aged 12 or older used a tobacco product in the last month in a 2008 survey (NSDUH, 2009). Tobacco is estimated to be responsible for 443,000 premature deaths annually (CDCP, 2008) and cause significant morbidity (Surgeon General, 2004). The effectiveness of tobacco interventions by health care providers was evaluated in a review of the literature by the review panel for the U.S. Public Health Service Clinical Practice Guideline, Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update (Fiore, et al., 2008). They found that medication and counseling are more effective for promoting tobacco cessation than no treatment and that intervention effectiveness increases with increased intervention intensity. The Clinical Practice Guideline (Fiore, et al., 2008), also provided evidence-based guidelines for clinicians on how to provide brief and more extensive interventions in tobacco use. Despite the documented need for tobacco cessation and effectiveness of clinical interventions and availability of practice guidelines, many health providers still are not providing evidence-based tobacco interventions. A number of studies have found that screening for tobacco use and recommending cessation occurs as frequently as 75% of the time in primary care, other appropriate tobacco interventions are made by in primary care less frequently (Schnoll R et al., 2006; Braun et al., 2004; Jaen et al., 2001; Ellerbeck et al., 2001). Training health care professionals in evidence-based, brief tobacco interventions in order to assure that all health providers know and are confident to provide tobacco interventions will help address this practice gap.

Practice Gap References
Braun B, Fowles J, Kind E, Lando H, Pine D. Smoking-related attitudes and clinical practices of medical personnel in Minnesota. American Journal of Preventive Medecine. 2004; 27(4): 316-322.
Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS). The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; Washington, D.C.: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.. 2004. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2004/complete_report/index.htm/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Ellerbeck EF, Ahluwalia JS, Jolicoeur DG, Gladden J, Mosier MC. Direct observation of smoking cessation activities in primary care practice. J Fam Pract. 2001; 50(8): 688-93. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11509163 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.
Fiore MC, Bailey WC, Cohen SJ, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline: Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence. Rockville, Md: Public Health Service, US Dept of Health and Human Services. 2000.
Jaen CR, McIlvain H, Phillips RL, Flocke S, Crabtree BF. Tailoring tobacco counseling to the competing demands in the clinical encounter. Journal of Family Practice. 2001; 50(10): .
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Targeting tobacco use: the nation’s leading cause of death, at-a-glance. CDC Web site. 2010. Available at: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5527 Accessed on: 2016-09-06.
Schnoll R, Rukstalis M, Wileyto E, Shields A. Smoking cessation treatment by primary care physicians: An update and call for training. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2006; 31(3): 233-239.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-36, DHHS Publication SMA 09-4434 . 2009. Available at: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2k8nsduh/2k8Results.htm Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

American Psychiatric Association. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. APA. 2013.
Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf Accessed on: 2008-10-10.
Babor TF , Dolinsky ZS, Meyer RE, Hesselbrock M, Hofmann M, Tennen H. Types of alcoholics: concurrent and predictive validity of some common classification schemes. Br J Addict. 1992; 87(10): 1415-31. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1330126 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Blow FC, Brower KJ, Schulenberg JE, Demo-Dananberg LM, Young JP, Beresford TP. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test – Geriatric Version (MAST-G): a new elderly-specific screening instrument. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 1992; 16(2): 372. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99192/
Bohn MJ, Babor TF, Kranzler HR. Validity of the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) in inpatient substance abusers. Farmington, Conn: University of Connecticut Heath Center. 1991. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441940/
Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. A two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. Journal of the American Board of Family Practice. 2001; 14(2): 95-106. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11314930 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27(1): 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonnell MB, et al.. The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Internal Med. 1998; 3: 1789-1795. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/tool_auditc.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-25.
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.
Chang G. Alcohol Screening Instruments for Pregnant Women. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). 2001; 25(3): 204-9. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-3/204-209.pdf Accessed on: 2011-01-10.
Clinical Tools Inc.. AUDIT Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/Xdsz__MaC1g Accessed on: 2015-09-25.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Diagnosing Alcohol Use Disorder. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/zGuiEbaAk3g Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Ewing JA. Detecting alcoholism: the CAGE questionnaire. JAMA. 1984; 252(14): 1905-1907. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6471323 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Fiellin DA, Reid MC, O’Connor PG. Screening for alcohol problems in primary care: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2000 ; 160(13): 1977-89. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10888972 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. May 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63952/ Accessed on: 2013-09-26.
Gavin DR, Ross HE, Skinner HA. Diagnostic validity of the Drug Abuse Screening Test in the assessment of DSM-III drug disorders. Addiction. 2006; 84: 301-307.
Glynn TJ, Manley MW. How to help your patients stop smoking- a National Cancer Institute manual for physicians. Smoking and Tobacco Control Program, National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, MD. 1998. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_help_your_patients_stop_smoking.html?id=TM1pAAAAMAAJ
Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Knight JR, Sherritt L, Harris SK, Gates EC, Chang G. Validity of brief alcohol screening tests among adolescents: a comparison of the AUDIT, POSIT, CAGE, and CRAFFT. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003; 27(1): 67-73.
Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/347094 Accessed on: 2010-08-25.
Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.
Martino S, Grilo CM, Fehon DC. Development of the Drug Abuse Screening Test for adolescents (DAST-A). Addict Behav. 2000; 25(1): 57-70.
Mersy DJ. Recognition of alcohol and substance abuse. American Family Physician. 2003; 67: 1529-1532. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2003/0401/p1529.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Assessing Alcohol Problems: A guide for clinicians and researchers. NIH Publication No. 03–3745. 2003. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AssessingAlcohol/index.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide, Updated 2005 Edition. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-28.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. Bethesda, Md. 2005 (Updated 2007). Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
National Institute on Drug Abuse. The NIDA-Modified ASSIST. NIDA. 2010. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2011-04-08.
NIDA. The NIDA Quick Screen. Screening for Drug Use in General Medical Settings Resource Guide. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2013-12-18.
Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Casper D. Addiction-related assessment tools and pain management: instruments for screening, treatment planning and monitoring compliance. Pain Med. 2008; 9: S145-S166.
Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Rollnick S, Miller WR. What is motivational interviewing?. Behav Cognitive Psychother. 1995; 23: 325-334. Available at: http://www.motivationalinterview.net/clinical/whatismi.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.
Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.
SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS . 2013. Available at: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2012SummNatFindDetTables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-26.
Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF. Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption —II. Addiction. 1993; 88(6): 791-803. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329970
SBIRT Oregon . Brief intervention: “Steve”. YouTube. 2010. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b-ilxvHZJDc Accessed on: 2015-04-27.
SBIRTOregon.org. Readiness ruler. SBIRT Primary Care. 2013. Available at: http://www.sbirtoregon.org/tools.php Accessed on: 2013-12-20.
Skinner HA. The drug abuse screening test. Addiction Behavior. 1982; 7(4): 363-71. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7183189 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Annals Intern Med. 2010; 170(13): 1155-1160. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2014-09-10.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2009 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. . (Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-38A, HHS Publication No. SMA 10-4856Findings). Rockville, MD. Electronic Access and Copies of Publication. 2010. Available at: http://oas.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k9NSDUH/2k9Results.htm#Ch7 Accessed on: 2011-04-13.
Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis3.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 . 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2010. Available at: https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/PolicyDoc.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-23.
USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.
Wagner C, Conners W. Interaction techniques. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center. 2003c. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.
Wagner C, Conners W. Motivational interviewing principles. Motivational Interviewing Website. 2003b. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.
World Health Organization. ASSIST V3.0. World Health Organization. 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_v3_english.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-08.
Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Implementation rates for screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) are low for patients with substance use problems in a primary care setting (Seale et al., 2010; CDC, 2017) despite evidence of efficacy (Agerwala & McCance-Katz, 2012; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Approximately 20 to 25% of primary care patients are likely to have a current substance use or related health problem (Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Primary care providers can improve patient care and outcomes by implementing SBIRT appropriately and effectively.

 

Practice Gap References

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.
CDC. Screening for Excessive Alcohol Use and Brief Counseling of Adults — 17 States and the District of Columbia, 2014. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2017; 66(12): 313–319. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6612a1.htm Accessed on: 2017-03-14.
Le KB, Johnson AJ, Seale JP, Woodall H, Clark DC, Parish DC, Miller DP. Primary care residents lack comfort and experience with alcohol screening and brief intervention: A multi-site survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2015; 30: 790-796. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666210 Accessed on: 2015-06-19.
Pilowsky DJ, Wu L. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22553426 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.
Saitz R. Addressing Unhealthy Alcohol Use in Primary Care. Springer. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Addressing-Unhealthy-Alcohol-Primary-Care/dp/146144778X Accessed on: 2017-07-26.
Seale JP, Shellenberger S, Velzsquez MM, Boltri JM, Okosun I, Guyinn M, Vinson D, Cornelius M, Johnson JA. Impact of vital signs screening and clinician prompting on alcohol and tobacco screening and intervention rates: a pre-post intervention comparison. BMC Fam Pract. 2010; 11:18: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205740 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.

BoiseCoE. Motivational Interviewing — OARS Skills. BoiseCoE. 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/_KNIPGV7Xyg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Butler C, Rollnick S, Cohen D, Russell I, Stott N. Motivational counseling versus brief advice for smokers in general practice: a randomized trial. BR J Gen Pract. 1999; 49: 611-616. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1316198/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Carey KB. Substance use reduction in the context of outpatient psychiatric treatment: a collaborative, motivational, harm reduction approach. Community Mental Health Journal. 1996; 32: 291-306. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8790970 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
Community Care of North Carolina. CCNC Motivational Interviewing Resource Guide. . 2013. Available at: https://www.communitycarenc.org/media/files/mi-guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-11.
Copeland L, McNamara R, Kelson M, et al. Mechanisms of change within motivational interviewing in relation to health behaviors outcomes: A systematic review. Patient Educ Couns. 2015; 98(4): 401-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25535015 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
DiLillo V , West DS. Motivational interviewing for weight loss . Psychiatric Clinics of North America . 2011; 34: 861-869. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22098809 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.
Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings: Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11137778 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Engle B. Motivational Interview with “Resistant” Heavy Drinker. . 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/eNfy-FVvnRs Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Glynn LH, Moyers TB. Chasing change talk: the clinician’s role in evoking client language about change. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2010; 39(1): 65-70. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472(10)00073-5/abstract Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Lundal B, Moleni T, Burke B L, et al. Motivational Interviewing in Medical Care Settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis randomized controlled trials. Patient Education and Counseling. 2013; 93(2): 157-68. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001658 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Lyme A. Motivational Interviewing – Good Example. TheIRETAchannel. 2013. Available at: https://youtu.be/67I6g1I7Zao Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Marlatt GA. Harm Reduction: come as you are. Addict Behav. 1996; 21: 779-88. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904943 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Miller W. Motivational interviewing with problem drinkers. Behav Psych. 1983; 11: 147-172. Available at: https://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5845668 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press.. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Moyers TB. The Relationship in Motivational Learning. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2014; 51(3): 358-63. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25068193Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Pirlott AG, Kisbu-Sakarya Y, Defrancesco CA, et al. Mechanisms of Motivational Interviewing in Health Promotion: A Bayesian mediation analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012; 9(1): 69. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22681874 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 1982; 19: 276-288. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/pst/19/3/276/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion. 1997; 12: 38-48. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10170434 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.
Rollnick S, Butler CC, Stott N. Helping smokers make decisions: the enhancement of brief interventions for general medical practice. Patient Educ Couns. 1997; 31: 191-203. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9277242 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Rollnick S, Mason P, Butler C. Health behavior change: a guide for practitioners. Churchill Livingstone. 2003. Available at: https://books.google.com/books?id=iWjZQAAACAAJ&lr= Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Rollnick S, Miller WR. What is motivational interviewing?. Behav Cognitive Psychother. 1995; 23: 325-334. Available at: http://www.motivationalinterview.net/clinical/whatismi.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.
Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.
U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 . 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2010. Available at: https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/PolicyDoc.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-23.
van der Wouden JC, Rietmeijer C. Motivational Interviewing in the Medical Care Setting. Patient Education Counseling . 2014; 96(1): 142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24856448 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Wagner C, Conners W. Interaction techniques. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center. 2003c. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.
Wagner C, Conners W. Motivational interviewing principles. Motivational Interviewing Website. 2003b. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.
Westar HA , Aviram A. Core Skills in Motivational Interviewing. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2013; 50(3): 273-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24000834 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Westra HA. Motivational interviewing in the treatment of anxiety . The Guilford Press. 2012. Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing-in-the-Treatment-of-Anxiety/Henny-Westra/9781462525997 Accessed on: 2015-06-25.

Activity Credit: Obtaining credit for participation in this activity requires that you complete the pre-assessments, work through the modules (including all in-module interactive activities), complete the post-assessments with a 70% score on the post-test, and then request credit. At the end of the activity, you will be instructed on how to print out a certificate for your records.

Time Requirement: Keep track of the amount of time it takes you to complete this activity. You will be required to spend a set amount of time in order to claim credit. You should claim credit only for the time actually spent in the activity.

Technical Requirement: To participate in this activity, you will need a computer, an Internet connection, and a Web browser. This activity requires Chrome, Firefox, and IE7 or higher.

BoiseCoE. Motivational Interviewing — OARS Skills. BoiseCoE. 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/_KNIPGV7Xyg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Butler C, Rollnick S, Cohen D, Russell I, Stott N. Motivational counseling versus brief advice for smokers in general practice: a randomized trial. BR J Gen Pract. 1999; 49: 611-616. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1316198/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Carey KB. Substance use reduction in the context of outpatient psychiatric treatment: a collaborative, motivational, harm reduction approach. Community Mental Health Journal. 1996; 32: 291-306. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8790970 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.
Community Care of North Carolina. CCNC Motivational Interviewing Resource Guide. . 2013. Available at: https://www.communitycarenc.org/media/files/mi-guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-11.
Copeland L, McNamara R, Kelson M, et al. Mechanisms of change within motivational interviewing in relation to health behaviors outcomes: A systematic review. Patient Educ Couns. 2015; 98(4): 401-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25535015 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
DiLillo V , West DS. Motivational interviewing for weight loss . Psychiatric Clinics of North America . 2011; 34: 861-869. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22098809 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.
Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings: Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11137778 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Engle B. Motivational Interview with “Resistant” Heavy Drinker. . 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/eNfy-FVvnRs Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Glynn LH, Moyers TB. Chasing change talk: the clinician’s role in evoking client language about change. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2010; 39(1): 65-70. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472(10)00073-5/abstract Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Lundal B, Moleni T, Burke B L, et al. Motivational Interviewing in Medical Care Settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis randomized controlled trials. Patient Education and Counseling. 2013; 93(2): 157-68. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001658 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Lyme A. Motivational Interviewing – Good Example. TheIRETAchannel. 2013. Available at: https://youtu.be/67I6g1I7Zao Accessed on: 2015-10-06.
Marlatt GA. Harm Reduction: come as you are. Addict Behav. 1996; 21: 779-88. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904943 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Miller W. Motivational interviewing with problem drinkers. Behav Psych. 1983; 11: 147-172. Available at: https://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5845668 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press.. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Moyers TB. The Relationship in Motivational Learning. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2014; 51(3): 358-63. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25068193Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Pirlott AG, Kisbu-Sakarya Y, Defrancesco CA, et al. Mechanisms of Motivational Interviewing in Health Promotion: A Bayesian mediation analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012; 9(1): 69. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22681874 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 1982; 19: 276-288. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/pst/19/3/276/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion. 1997; 12: 38-48. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10170434 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.
Rollnick S, Butler CC, Stott N. Helping smokers make decisions: the enhancement of brief interventions for general medical practice. Patient Educ Couns. 1997; 31: 191-203. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9277242 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Rollnick S, Mason P, Butler C. Health behavior change: a guide for practitioners. Churchill Livingstone. 2003. Available at: https://books.google.com/books?id=iWjZQAAACAAJ&lr= Accessed on: 2013-10-25.
Rollnick S, Miller WR. What is motivational interviewing?. Behav Cognitive Psychother. 1995; 23: 325-334. Available at: http://www.motivationalinterview.net/clinical/whatismi.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.
Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.
U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 . 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2010. Available at: https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/PolicyDoc.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-23.
van der Wouden JC, Rietmeijer C. Motivational Interviewing in the Medical Care Setting. Patient Education Counseling . 2014; 96(1): 142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24856448 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Wagner C, Conners W. Interaction techniques. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center. 2003c. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.
Wagner C, Conners W. Motivational interviewing principles. Motivational Interviewing Website. 2003b. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.
Westar HA , Aviram A. Core Skills in Motivational Interviewing. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2013; 50(3): 273-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24000834 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.
Westra HA. Motivational interviewing in the treatment of anxiety . The Guilford Press. 2012. Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing-in-the-Treatment-of-Anxiety/Henny-Westra/9781462525997 Accessed on: 2015-06-25.

Professional practice gaps exist when there is a disparity between educational needs and the ideal or desired level of knowledge, competence, and performance. Few primary care providers routinely provide substance use interventions with their patients or appropriate follow-up (Roche & Freeman, 2004; D’Amico et al., 2005). The structured counseling skills of motivational interviewing are an effective means of motivating patients to change addictive behavior (Miller & Rollnick, 2012). Motivational Interviewing has been used successfully in primary care as a brief intervention for addiction (Rahm et al., 2014) particularly for enhancing readiness to change, goal-oriented action, and treatment adherence (VanBuskirk & Wetherell, 2014). Training physicians in motivational interviewing skills will prepare them to provide effective substance use interventions for patients.

Providers vary a great deal with respect to their self-efficacy in counseling skills to address substance use problems (Midboe, et al., 2011). Providing instruction on the steps involved in motivational interviewing will adhere the foundation for building self-efficacy and fulfill the knowledge need. Also, primary care providers express uncertainty in their ability to perform brief counseling interventions (Saitz, 2013). Understanding how to apply the clinical steps will help address this competence need. Additionally, experience with interactive case scenarios will help providers transfer competency in motivational interviewing into practice to help address the performance need for greater self-efficacy with counseling skills for substance use problems.

 

Practice Gap References

Babor TF, McRee BG, Kassebaum PA, Grimaldi PL, Ahmed K, Bray J. Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT): toward a public health approach to the management of substance abuse. Subst Abus. 2007; 28(3): 7-30. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18077300 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.
Carroll KM, Ball SA, Nich C, Martino S, Frankforter TL, Farentinos C, Kunkel LE, Mikulich-Gilbertson SK, Morgenstern J, Obert JL, Polcin D, Snead N, Woody GE, National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network. Motivational interviewing to improve treatment engagement and outcome in individuals seeking treatment for substance abuse: a multisite effectiveness study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006; 81(3): 301-12. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16169159 Accessed on: 2014-07-29.
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Behavioral health trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. HHS Publication. 2015; SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FRR1-2014/NSDUH-FRR1-2014.htm
Clinical Tools Inc. Needs analysis evaluation for: Online Skills Training for Primary Care Physicians on Substance Abuse.. NIDA Contract No. HHSN271200800038C. 2009.
D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.
Mersy DJ. Recognition of alcohol and substance abuse. American Family Physician. 2003; 67: 1529-1532. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2003/0401/p1529.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Midboe AM, Cucciare MA, Trafton JA, et al.. Implementing motivational interviewing in primary care: the role of provider characteristics. J Behav Med. 2014; 37(4): 768-80. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717678/ Accessed on: 2018-02-22.
Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.
Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.
Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.
Saitz R. Addressing Unhealthy Alcohol Use in Primary Care. Springer. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Addressing-Unhealthy-Alcohol-Primary-Care/dp/146144778X Accessed on: 2017-07-26.
VanBuskirk KA, Wetherell JL. Motivational interviewing with primary care populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis.. J Behav Med. 2014; 37(4): 768-80. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4118674/ Accessed on: 2018-02-22.

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Alberta Health Services . Brief Tobacco Intervention: Ready 2 Quit . YouTube . 2012. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4B74E_8ncc Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

American Academy of Family Physicians. HCPCS, CPT, & ICD-9 Codes Related to Tobacco Cessation Counseling. AAFP.org. 2011. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/Coding-list.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/YouthGuide/YouthGuide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

American Academy of Pediatrics. Policy statement. Substance use screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 2011; 128(5): e1330-e1340. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/e1330.full Accessed on: 2011-12-13.

American Psychiatric Association. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. APA. 2013. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwiQpMKqjPPUAhWCbD4KHXHHDFkQFggxMAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPsychiatrists%2FPractice%2FDSM%2FAPA_DSM-5-Substance-Use-Disorder.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHWoKLjpxTdYDFkTbjWM1h9dqOKNwAccessed on: 2013-06-26.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. . June 1, 2015. Available at: https://www.asam.org/quality-practice/guidelines-and-consensus-documents/npg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Azari S, Lum P, Ratanawongsa N, et al. A Skills-Based Curriculum for Teaching Motivational Interviewing-Enhanced Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) to Medical Residents. MedEdPORTAL Publications. 2015. Available at: https://www.mededportal.org/publication/10080 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC. Brief Intervention for Hazardous and Harmful Drinking: A Manual for Use in Primary Care . World Health Organization. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/who_msd_msb_01.6b.pdf

Blow FC, Brower KJ, Schulenberg JE, Demo-Dananberg LM, Young JP, Beresford TP. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test – Geriatric Version (MAST-G): a new elderly-specific screening instrument. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 1992; 16(2): 372. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99192/

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27(1): 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94(3): 135-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonnell MB, et al.. The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Internal Med. 1998; 3: 1789-1795. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/tool_auditc.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Carlisle J, Shickle D, Cork M, McDonagh A. Concerns over confidentiality may deter adolescents from consulting their doctors. A qualitative exploration.. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2006; 32(3): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2564464/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Behavioral health trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. HHS Publication. 2015; SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FRR1-2014/NSDUH-FRR1-2014.htm

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet. CDC Website. 2010. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians: TIP 24. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use: Targeting the Nation’s Leading Killer. CDC Website. 2011. Available at: http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5527/

Chang G. Alcohol Screening Instruments for Pregnant Women. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). 2001; 25(3): 204-9. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-3/204-209.pdf Accessed on: 2011-01-10.

Clemens KJ, Vendruscolo LF. Anxious to Drink: Gabapentin Normalizes GABAergic Transmission in the Central Amygdala and Reduces Symptoms of Ethanol Dependence. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2008; 28: 9087-9089. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/37/9087.long Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Clinical Tools Inc.. AUDIT Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/Xdsz__MaC1g Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. CAGE Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/0mOg2rcCbjM Accessed on: 2015-08-20.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Diagnosing Alcohol Use Disorder. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/zGuiEbaAk3g Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Video: Case: Mr. Rennie CAGE Interview. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDAay15544U Accessed on: 2011-04-11.

Community Care of North Carolina. CCNC Motivational Interviewing Resource Guide. . 2013. Available at: https://www.communitycarenc.org/media/files/mi-guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Screening and Treatment Pocket Card. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketcardScreeningandTreatmentRevised12716.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Detecting alcoholism: the CAGE questionnaire. JAMA. 1984; 252: 1905-1907.

Devine EG, Brief DJ, Horton GE, LoCastro JS. Comprehensive Addiction Treatment: A cognitive-behavioral approach to treating substance use disorders. LULU Press. 2010; 4: . Available at: http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dph/programs/substance-abuse/prevention/screening-brief-intervention-and-referral-to.htmlAccessed on: 2015-06-11.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Thornton-Evans GO, Genco RJ. Prevalence of Periodontitis in Adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. Journal of Dental Research. 2012; 91: 914-20. Available at: http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/91/10/914 Accessed on: 2014-12-16.

Emmons KM, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing in Health Care Settings: Opportunities and Limitations. American journal of preventive medicine. 2001; 20.1: 68-74. Available at: https://meded.duke.edu/practice/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Emmons-MI-article1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-17.

Feld A. The health insurance portability and accountability act (HIPAA): its broad effect on practice. . American Journal of Gastroenterology.. 2005; 100(7): 1440-1443. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984962 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. May 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63952/ Accessed on: 2013-09-26.

Food and Drug Administration. Campral (acamprosate calcium) Label. FDA Website. July 30, 2004a. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/Scripts/cder/DrugsatFDA/index.cfm Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

Gialamas A, St John A, Laurence CO, Bubner TK, PoCT Management Committee. Point-of-care testing for patients with diabetes, hyperlipidaemia or coagulation disorders in the general practice setting: a systematic review. Fam Pract. 2010; Feb 27(1): 17-24. Available at: https://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/17.long Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Glynn TJ, Manley MW. How to help your patients stop smoking- a National Cancer Institute manual for physicians. Smoking and Tobacco Control Program, National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, MD. 1998. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_help_your_patients_stop_smoking.html?id=TM1pAAAAMAAJ

Grana R, Benowitz N, Glantz SA. E-cigarettes: A scientific review. Contemporary Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine. 2014; 129: 1972-1986. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/129/19/1972.full Accessed on: 2015-06-15.

Heumann D. Alcoholic hepatitis clinical presentation. Medscape Drugs and Diseases. 2014. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/170539-clinicalAccessed on: 2015-07-27.

Hicks M, Tough SC, Johnston D , et al. T-ACE and predictors of self-reported alcohol use during pregnancy in a large, population-based urban cohort . International Journal of Alcohol and Drug Research . 2014; 3 (1): 51-61. Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

IBHP. Warm hand-off referrals by the primary care provider to the behavioralist . California Metal Health Services Authority . 2007. Available at: https://www.ibhp.org/?section=pages&cid=122 Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing The Quality Chasm: A New Health System For The 21st Century. IOM. 2001. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Institute of Medicine. Board on Healthcare Services. 2006. Available at: https://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2010-07-06.

Isaacson JH, Butler R, Zacharek M, Tzelepis A. Screening with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in an Inner-city Population. Journal of Gen Int Med. 1994; 9: 550-553. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7823225 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

Ismene L. Petrakis, et al. . Comorbidity of alcoholism and psychiatric disorders. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . 2002. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh26-2/81-89.htm Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Jensen CD, Cushing CC, Aylward BS, Craig JT, Sorell DM, Steele RG. Effectiveness of motivational interviewing interventions for adolescent substance use behavior change: A meta-analytic review. J of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(4): 443-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21728400 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N. Topiramate in the new generation of drugs: efficacy in the treatment of alcoholic patients. Curr Pharm Des. 2010; 16(19): 2103-2112. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20482511

Jørgensen CH. The efficacy of disulfiram for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res.. 2011; 35: 10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21615426 Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Kaner EF, Dickinson HO, Beyer FR, et al. Effectiveness of brief alcohol interventions in primary care populations. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. 2009; 4: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443541 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15556117Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF, et al. Treatment of patients with substance use disorders, second edition. American Psychiatic Association. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(8 Suppl): 5-82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16981488 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Knight JR, Sherritt L, Harris SK, Gates EC, Chang G. Validity of brief alcohol screening tests among adolescents: a comparison of the AUDIT, POSIT, CAGE, and CRAFFT. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003; 27(1): 67-73.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/347094 Accessed on: 2010-08-25.

Laudet AB. Substance abuse treatment providers’ referral to self-help: Review and future empirical directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Legal Information Institute. 42 CFR Part 2 – Confidentiality of alcohol and drug abuse patient records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/42/part-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Legal Information Institute. 42 U.S. Code § 290dd–2 – Confidentiality of records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/290dd-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Lussier, M, Richard C. The motivational interview: In practice. Canadian Family Physician. 2007; 53: 2117-2118. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231547/ Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Mee-Lee D (ed). The ASAM Criteria . . 2013; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Meneses-Gaya C, Zuardi AW, Loureiro SR, et al. Is the Full Version of the AUDIT Really Necessary? Study of the Validity and Internal Construct of Its Abbreviated Versions. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2010; 34: 1417-1424. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20491736 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press.. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Monto A, Currie S, Wright TL. Liver disease in injection drug users with hepatitis C, with and without HIV coinfection. J Addict Dis. 2008; 27(2): 49-59. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J069v27n02_06?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed#.Ula6dplDvmcAccessed on: 2013-10-10.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Assessing Alcohol Problems: A guide for clinicians and researchers. NIH Publication No. 03–3745. 2003. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AssessingAlcohol/index.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide, Updated 2005 Edition. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-28.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. Bethesda, Md. 2005 (Updated 2007). Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol Alert No. 56: Screening for Alcohol Use Problems — An Update. NIAAA Website. 2002a. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa56.htm Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Linked Epidemics: Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS. Topics in Brief. 2005. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hivaids-drug-abuse-intertwined-epidemics Accessed on: 2011-04-16.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide. Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2012; December: . Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. The NIDA-Modified ASSIST. NIDA. 2010. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2011-04-08.

National Institutes of Health. NIH-funded study finds that gabapentin may treat alcohol dependence. National Institutes of Health. 2013. Available at: https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-funded-study-finds-gabapentin-may-treat-alcohol-dependence Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Newcombe DA, Humeniuk RE, Ali R. Validation of the World Health Organization Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): report of results from the Australian site.. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005; 24: 217-226. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16096125 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

NIAAA. Alcohol Facts and Statistics. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Alcohol’s Effects on the Body. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Beyond hangovers. NIAAA Publications. 2010b. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Hangovers/beyondHangovers.htm#chapter03 Accessed on: 2015-07-27.

NIDA. The NIDA Quick Screen. Screening for Drug Use in General Medical Settings Resource Guide. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2013-12-18.

O’Malley AS, Reschovsky JD. Referral and consultation communication between primary care and specialist physicians: finding common ground.. Arch Intern Med. 2011; 171(1): 56-65. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21220662 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction. Healthcare Brief ONDCP. 2012. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ondcp/recovery/medication_assisted_treatment_9-21-20121.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu L. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22553426 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.

Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Rubio G, Jiménez-Arriero MA, Martínez I, Ponce G, Palomo T. Efficacy of physician-delivered brief counseling intervention for binge drinkers. Department of Psychiatry, Complutense University of Madrid, Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain, Am J Med. 2010; 123(1): 72-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20102995 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

SAMHSA Partners for Recovery. Pathways to Healing and Recovery: Perspectives from Inpiduals with Histories of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. . 2010. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/recovery_pathways_report.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

SAMHSA. Coding for SBI Reimbursement . SAMHSA. 2008. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/sbirt/Detailed_information_about_coding_for_SBI_reimbursement.pdf Accessed on: 2011-11-01.

SAMHSA. Medication and Counseling Treatment. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/15: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS . 2013. Available at: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2012SummNatFindDetTables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF. Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption —II. Addiction. 1993; 88(6): 791-803. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329970

Schoener EP, Hopper JA, Pierre JD. Injection drug use in North America. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002; 16(3): 535-551. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371114 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Siu AL, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral counseling and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant women: A review of reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26389730 Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Skinner HA. The drug abuse screening test. Addiction Behavior. 1982; 7(4): 363-71. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7183189 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. Primary care validation of a single question alcohol screening test. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 25(4): 375. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695521/ Accessed on: 2017-03-09.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Annals Intern Med. 2010; 170(13): 1155-1160. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2014-09-10.

Smyth A, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, O’Donnell M, Zhang M, Rana P, Leong DP, Dagenais G, Seron P, Rosengren A, Schutte AE, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Oguz A, Chifamba J, Diaz R, Lear S, Avezum A, Kumar R, Mohan V, Szuba A, Wei L, Yang W, Jian B, McKee M, Yusuf S. Alcohol Consumption and Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, Injury, Admission to Hospital, and Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study. The Lancet. 2015. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)00235-4/references Accessed on: 2015-09-28.

Sobell, Sobell. Motivational interviewing strategies and techniques: Rationales and examples. Nova Southeastern University. 2008. Available at: http://www.nova.edu/gsc/forms/mi_rationale_techniques.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Stern TA, Gross AF, Stern TW, et al. Current approaches to the recognition and treatment of alcohol withdrawal and delirium tremens: “old wine in new bottles” or “new wine in old bottles”. Primary Care Companion to The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2010; 12(3): . Available at: http://www.psychiatrist.com/PCC/article/Pages/2010/v12n03/10r00991ecr.aspx Accessed on: 2017-03-16.

Storie M. SBIRT Brief Intervention for Preparation Stage, High Risk Client. Colorado SBIRT. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfFF7jcm3tA Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Storie Misti. SBIRT AUDIT Screening. SBIRT Colorado. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHcalohcunU Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAHMSA). Tip 34: Brief interventions and brief therapies for substance abuse. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 99-3353. 1999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64947/ Accessed on: 2010-08-31.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 43, Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction in Opioid Treatment Programs. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-4048. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2005. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64164/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Tan CH, Denny CH , Cheal NE , Sniezek JE, Kanny D. Alcohol Use and Binge Drinking Among Women of Childbearing Age-United States, 2011-2013. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015; 64(37): 1042-1046. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6128a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (CASA). An SBIRT Implementation and Process Change Manual for Practitioners. CASA. 2012. Available at: https://www.centeronaddiction.org/sites/default/files/files/An-SBIRT-implementation-and-process-change-manual-for-practitioners.pdfAccessed on: 2014-09-30.

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-279. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17524574 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Tonigan JS, Miller WR, Schermer C. Atheists, agnostics and Alcoholics Anonymous. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 534-541. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12380849 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis3.html

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. . Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention . 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Screening for illicit drug use. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-30.

UMBCtube . SBIRT: Brief Intervention: At Risk Alcohol Use . Youtube . 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebsqETBWEdQ Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Screening for drug use in general medical settings: Resource guide. . 2010. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/resource_guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors: Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. US DOL. 2009. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

University of Wisconsin Center for Tobacco Research & Intervention (UW-CTRI). International Classification of Diseases (ICD) – 10 Codes Tobacco/Nicotine Dependence, and Secondhand Smoke Exposure Effective October 1, 2015. . 2015. Available at: http://www.ctri.wisc.edu/documents/icd10.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-05.

USDA. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. . 2015. Available at: https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/pdfs/scientific-report-of-the-2015-dietary-guidelines-advisory-committee.pdf Accessed on: 2015-11-21.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

Waldron HB, Turner CW. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescent substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2008; 37: 238-261. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18444060 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Washington State Department of Health (WSDH). Substance abuse during pregnancy: guidelines for screening and management . Office of Healthy Communities . 2015. Available at: http://here.doh.wa.gov/materials/guidelines-substance-abuse-pregnancy Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

Weddle M, Kokotailo P. Adolescent substance abuse. Confidentiality and consent.. The Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2002; 49(2): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11993284 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Weisleder P. The right of minors to confidentiality and informed consent. Journal of Child Neurology. 2004; 19(2): 145-148. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072109 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002; 97: 1183-1194. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12199834 Accessed on: 2015-06-02.

Williams JF, Smith VC, Committee on Substance Abuse. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2015; 136: 5: 1395-1406. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/10/13/peds.2015-3113 Accessed on: 2015-10-22.

Winzelberg A, Humphreys K. Should patients’ religiosity influence clinicians’ referral to 12-step self-help groups? Evidence from a study of 3,018 male substance abuse patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999; 67(5): 790-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10535246 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

World Health Organization. ASSIST V3.0. World Health Organization. 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_v3_english.pdfAccessed on: 2011-04-08.

World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. . 2013. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/ICD10ClinicalDiagnosis.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-10.

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Alberta Health Services . Brief Tobacco Intervention: Ready 2 Quit . YouTube . 2012. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4B74E_8ncc Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

American Academy of Family Physicians. HCPCS, CPT, & ICD-9 Codes Related to Tobacco Cessation Counseling. AAFP.org. 2011. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/Coding-list.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/YouthGuide/YouthGuide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

American Academy of Pediatrics. Policy statement. Substance use screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 2011; 128(5): e1330-e1340. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/e1330.full Accessed on: 2011-12-13.

American Psychiatric Association. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. APA. 2013. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwiQpMKqjPPUAhWCbD4KHXHHDFkQFggxMAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPsychiatrists%2FPractice%2FDSM%2FAPA_DSM-5-Substance-Use-Disorder.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHWoKLjpxTdYDFkTbjWM1h9dqOKNwAccessed on: 2013-06-26.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. . June 1, 2015. Available at: https://www.asam.org/quality-practice/guidelines-and-consensus-documents/npg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Azari S, Lum P, Ratanawongsa N, et al. A Skills-Based Curriculum for Teaching Motivational Interviewing-Enhanced Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) to Medical Residents. MedEdPORTAL Publications. 2015. Available at: https://www.mededportal.org/publication/10080 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC. Brief Intervention for Hazardous and Harmful Drinking: A Manual for Use in Primary Care . World Health Organization. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/who_msd_msb_01.6b.pdf

Blow FC, Brower KJ, Schulenberg JE, Demo-Dananberg LM, Young JP, Beresford TP. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test – Geriatric Version (MAST-G): a new elderly-specific screening instrument. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 1992; 16(2): 372. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99192/

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27(1): 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94(3): 135-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonnell MB, et al.. The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Internal Med. 1998; 3: 1789-1795. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/tool_auditc.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Carlisle J, Shickle D, Cork M, McDonagh A. Concerns over confidentiality may deter adolescents from consulting their doctors. A qualitative exploration.. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2006; 32(3): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2564464/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Behavioral health trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. HHS Publication. 2015; SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FRR1-2014/NSDUH-FRR1-2014.htm

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet. CDC Website. 2010. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians: TIP 24. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use: Targeting the Nation’s Leading Killer. CDC Website. 2011. Available at: http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5527/

Chang G. Alcohol Screening Instruments for Pregnant Women. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). 2001; 25(3): 204-9. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-3/204-209.pdf Accessed on: 2011-01-10.

Clemens KJ, Vendruscolo LF. Anxious to Drink: Gabapentin Normalizes GABAergic Transmission in the Central Amygdala and Reduces Symptoms of Ethanol Dependence. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2008; 28: 9087-9089. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/37/9087.long Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Clinical Tools Inc.. AUDIT Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/Xdsz__MaC1g Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. CAGE Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/0mOg2rcCbjM Accessed on: 2015-08-20.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Diagnosing Alcohol Use Disorder. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/zGuiEbaAk3g Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Video: Case: Mr. Rennie CAGE Interview. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDAay15544U Accessed on: 2011-04-11.

Community Care of North Carolina. CCNC Motivational Interviewing Resource Guide. . 2013. Available at: https://www.communitycarenc.org/media/files/mi-guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Screening and Treatment Pocket Card. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketcardScreeningandTreatmentRevised12716.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Detecting alcoholism: the CAGE questionnaire. JAMA. 1984; 252: 1905-1907.

Devine EG, Brief DJ, Horton GE, LoCastro JS. Comprehensive Addiction Treatment: A cognitive-behavioral approach to treating substance use disorders. LULU Press. 2010; 4: . Available at: http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dph/programs/substance-abuse/prevention/screening-brief-intervention-and-referral-to.htmlAccessed on: 2015-06-11.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Thornton-Evans GO, Genco RJ. Prevalence of Periodontitis in Adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. Journal of Dental Research. 2012; 91: 914-20. Available at: http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/91/10/914 Accessed on: 2014-12-16.

Emmons KM, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing in Health Care Settings: Opportunities and Limitations. American journal of preventive medicine. 2001; 20.1: 68-74. Available at: https://meded.duke.edu/practice/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Emmons-MI-article1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-17.

Feld A. The health insurance portability and accountability act (HIPAA): its broad effect on practice. . American Journal of Gastroenterology.. 2005; 100(7): 1440-1443. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984962 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. May 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63952/ Accessed on: 2013-09-26.

Food and Drug Administration. Campral (acamprosate calcium) Label. FDA Website. July 30, 2004a. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/Scripts/cder/DrugsatFDA/index.cfm Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

Gialamas A, St John A, Laurence CO, Bubner TK, PoCT Management Committee. Point-of-care testing for patients with diabetes, hyperlipidaemia or coagulation disorders in the general practice setting: a systematic review. Fam Pract. 2010; Feb 27(1): 17-24. Available at: https://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/17.long Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Glynn TJ, Manley MW. How to help your patients stop smoking- a National Cancer Institute manual for physicians. Smoking and Tobacco Control Program, National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, MD. 1998. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_help_your_patients_stop_smoking.html?id=TM1pAAAAMAAJ

Grana R, Benowitz N, Glantz SA. E-cigarettes: A scientific review. Contemporary Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine. 2014; 129: 1972-1986. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/129/19/1972.full Accessed on: 2015-06-15.

Heumann D. Alcoholic hepatitis clinical presentation. Medscape Drugs and Diseases. 2014. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/170539-clinicalAccessed on: 2015-07-27.

Hicks M, Tough SC, Johnston D , et al. T-ACE and predictors of self-reported alcohol use during pregnancy in a large, population-based urban cohort . International Journal of Alcohol and Drug Research . 2014; 3 (1): 51-61. Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

IBHP. Warm hand-off referrals by the primary care provider to the behavioralist . California Metal Health Services Authority . 2007. Available at: https://www.ibhp.org/?section=pages&cid=122 Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing The Quality Chasm: A New Health System For The 21st Century. IOM. 2001. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Institute of Medicine. Board on Healthcare Services. 2006. Available at: https://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2010-07-06.

Isaacson JH, Butler R, Zacharek M, Tzelepis A. Screening with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in an Inner-city Population. Journal of Gen Int Med. 1994; 9: 550-553. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7823225 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

Ismene L. Petrakis, et al. . Comorbidity of alcoholism and psychiatric disorders. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . 2002. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh26-2/81-89.htm Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Jensen CD, Cushing CC, Aylward BS, Craig JT, Sorell DM, Steele RG. Effectiveness of motivational interviewing interventions for adolescent substance use behavior change: A meta-analytic review. J of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(4): 443-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21728400 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N. Topiramate in the new generation of drugs: efficacy in the treatment of alcoholic patients. Curr Pharm Des. 2010; 16(19): 2103-2112. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20482511

Jørgensen CH. The efficacy of disulfiram for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res.. 2011; 35: 10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21615426 Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Kaner EF, Dickinson HO, Beyer FR, et al. Effectiveness of brief alcohol interventions in primary care populations. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. 2009; 4: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443541 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15556117Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF, et al. Treatment of patients with substance use disorders, second edition. American Psychiatic Association. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(8 Suppl): 5-82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16981488 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Knight JR, Sherritt L, Harris SK, Gates EC, Chang G. Validity of brief alcohol screening tests among adolescents: a comparison of the AUDIT, POSIT, CAGE, and CRAFFT. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003; 27(1): 67-73.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/347094 Accessed on: 2010-08-25.

Laudet AB. Substance abuse treatment providers’ referral to self-help: Review and future empirical directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Legal Information Institute. 42 CFR Part 2 – Confidentiality of alcohol and drug abuse patient records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/42/part-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Legal Information Institute. 42 U.S. Code § 290dd–2 – Confidentiality of records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/290dd-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Lussier, M, Richard C. The motivational interview: In practice. Canadian Family Physician. 2007; 53: 2117-2118. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231547/ Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Mee-Lee D (ed). The ASAM Criteria . . 2013; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Meneses-Gaya C, Zuardi AW, Loureiro SR, et al. Is the Full Version of the AUDIT Really Necessary? Study of the Validity and Internal Construct of Its Abbreviated Versions. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2010; 34: 1417-1424. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20491736 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press.. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Monto A, Currie S, Wright TL. Liver disease in injection drug users with hepatitis C, with and without HIV coinfection. J Addict Dis. 2008; 27(2): 49-59. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J069v27n02_06?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed#.Ula6dplDvmcAccessed on: 2013-10-10.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Assessing Alcohol Problems: A guide for clinicians and researchers. NIH Publication No. 03–3745. 2003. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AssessingAlcohol/index.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide, Updated 2005 Edition. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-28.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. Bethesda, Md. 2005 (Updated 2007). Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol Alert No. 56: Screening for Alcohol Use Problems — An Update. NIAAA Website. 2002a. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa56.htm Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Linked Epidemics: Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS. Topics in Brief. 2005. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hivaids-drug-abuse-intertwined-epidemics Accessed on: 2011-04-16.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide. Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2012; December: . Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. The NIDA-Modified ASSIST. NIDA. 2010. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2011-04-08.

National Institutes of Health. NIH-funded study finds that gabapentin may treat alcohol dependence. National Institutes of Health. 2013. Available at: https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-funded-study-finds-gabapentin-may-treat-alcohol-dependence Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Newcombe DA, Humeniuk RE, Ali R. Validation of the World Health Organization Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): report of results from the Australian site.. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005; 24: 217-226. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16096125 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

NIAAA. Alcohol Facts and Statistics. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Alcohol’s Effects on the Body. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Beyond hangovers. NIAAA Publications. 2010b. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Hangovers/beyondHangovers.htm#chapter03 Accessed on: 2015-07-27.

NIDA. The NIDA Quick Screen. Screening for Drug Use in General Medical Settings Resource Guide. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2013-12-18.

O’Malley AS, Reschovsky JD. Referral and consultation communication between primary care and specialist physicians: finding common ground.. Arch Intern Med. 2011; 171(1): 56-65. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21220662 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction. Healthcare Brief ONDCP. 2012. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ondcp/recovery/medication_assisted_treatment_9-21-20121.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu L. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22553426 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.

Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Rubio G, Jiménez-Arriero MA, Martínez I, Ponce G, Palomo T. Efficacy of physician-delivered brief counseling intervention for binge drinkers. Department of Psychiatry, Complutense University of Madrid, Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain, Am J Med. 2010; 123(1): 72-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20102995 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

SAMHSA Partners for Recovery. Pathways to Healing and Recovery: Perspectives from Inpiduals with Histories of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. . 2010. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/recovery_pathways_report.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

SAMHSA. Coding for SBI Reimbursement . SAMHSA. 2008. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/sbirt/Detailed_information_about_coding_for_SBI_reimbursement.pdf Accessed on: 2011-11-01.

SAMHSA. Medication and Counseling Treatment. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/15: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS . 2013. Available at: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2012SummNatFindDetTables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF. Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption —II. Addiction. 1993; 88(6): 791-803. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329970

Schoener EP, Hopper JA, Pierre JD. Injection drug use in North America. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002; 16(3): 535-551. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371114 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Siu AL, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral counseling and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant women: A review of reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26389730 Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Skinner HA. The drug abuse screening test. Addiction Behavior. 1982; 7(4): 363-71. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7183189 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. Primary care validation of a single question alcohol screening test. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 25(4): 375. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695521/ Accessed on: 2017-03-09.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Annals Intern Med. 2010; 170(13): 1155-1160. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2014-09-10.

Smyth A, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, O’Donnell M, Zhang M, Rana P, Leong DP, Dagenais G, Seron P, Rosengren A, Schutte AE, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Oguz A, Chifamba J, Diaz R, Lear S, Avezum A, Kumar R, Mohan V, Szuba A, Wei L, Yang W, Jian B, McKee M, Yusuf S. Alcohol Consumption and Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, Injury, Admission to Hospital, and Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study. The Lancet. 2015. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)00235-4/references Accessed on: 2015-09-28.

Sobell, Sobell. Motivational interviewing strategies and techniques: Rationales and examples. Nova Southeastern University. 2008. Available at: http://www.nova.edu/gsc/forms/mi_rationale_techniques.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Stern TA, Gross AF, Stern TW, et al. Current approaches to the recognition and treatment of alcohol withdrawal and delirium tremens: “old wine in new bottles” or “new wine in old bottles”. Primary Care Companion to The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2010; 12(3): . Available at: http://www.psychiatrist.com/PCC/article/Pages/2010/v12n03/10r00991ecr.aspx Accessed on: 2017-03-16.

Storie M. SBIRT Brief Intervention for Preparation Stage, High Risk Client. Colorado SBIRT. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfFF7jcm3tA Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Storie Misti. SBIRT AUDIT Screening. SBIRT Colorado. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHcalohcunU Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAHMSA). Tip 34: Brief interventions and brief therapies for substance abuse. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 99-3353. 1999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64947/ Accessed on: 2010-08-31.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 43, Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction in Opioid Treatment Programs. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-4048. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2005. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64164/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Tan CH, Denny CH , Cheal NE , Sniezek JE, Kanny D. Alcohol Use and Binge Drinking Among Women of Childbearing Age-United States, 2011-2013. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015; 64(37): 1042-1046. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6128a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (CASA). An SBIRT Implementation and Process Change Manual for Practitioners. CASA. 2012. Available at: https://www.centeronaddiction.org/sites/default/files/files/An-SBIRT-implementation-and-process-change-manual-for-practitioners.pdfAccessed on: 2014-09-30.

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-279. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17524574 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Tonigan JS, Miller WR, Schermer C. Atheists, agnostics and Alcoholics Anonymous. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 534-541. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12380849 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis3.html

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. . Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention . 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Screening for illicit drug use. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-30.

UMBCtube . SBIRT: Brief Intervention: At Risk Alcohol Use . Youtube . 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebsqETBWEdQ Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Screening for drug use in general medical settings: Resource guide. . 2010. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/resource_guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors: Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. US DOL. 2009. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

University of Wisconsin Center for Tobacco Research & Intervention (UW-CTRI). International Classification of Diseases (ICD) – 10 Codes Tobacco/Nicotine Dependence, and Secondhand Smoke Exposure Effective October 1, 2015. . 2015. Available at: http://www.ctri.wisc.edu/documents/icd10.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-05.

USDA. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. . 2015. Available at: https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/pdfs/scientific-report-of-the-2015-dietary-guidelines-advisory-committee.pdf Accessed on: 2015-11-21.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

Waldron HB, Turner CW. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescent substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2008; 37: 238-261. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18444060 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Washington State Department of Health (WSDH). Substance abuse during pregnancy: guidelines for screening and management . Office of Healthy Communities . 2015. Available at: http://here.doh.wa.gov/materials/guidelines-substance-abuse-pregnancy Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

Weddle M, Kokotailo P. Adolescent substance abuse. Confidentiality and consent.. The Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2002; 49(2): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11993284 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Weisleder P. The right of minors to confidentiality and informed consent. Journal of Child Neurology. 2004; 19(2): 145-148. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072109 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002; 97: 1183-1194. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12199834 Accessed on: 2015-06-02.

Williams JF, Smith VC, Committee on Substance Abuse. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2015; 136: 5: 1395-1406. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/10/13/peds.2015-3113 Accessed on: 2015-10-22.

Winzelberg A, Humphreys K. Should patients’ religiosity influence clinicians’ referral to 12-step self-help groups? Evidence from a study of 3,018 male substance abuse patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999; 67(5): 790-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10535246 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

World Health Organization. ASSIST V3.0. World Health Organization. 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_v3_english.pdfAccessed on: 2011-04-08.

World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. . 2013. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/ICD10ClinicalDiagnosis.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-10.

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Approximately 20 to 25% of primary care patients are likely to have a current substance use problem or health problem related to tobacco, alcohol, or drug use (Madras et al., 2009; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Screening, brief interventions, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) provided to all patients is effective in reducing alcohol, drug, and tobacco use (Agerwala & McCance-Katz, 2012; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Brief intervention in primary care is an effective and cost-efficient approach to reduce patients’ alcohol use (Seale et al., 2010; Madras et al., 2009). SBIRT was originally designed for patients with alcohol and tobacco use, but there is growing evidence that brief interventions for illicit drug use also leads to positive patient outcomes (Compton, 2009). Motivational interviewing is a set of structured counseling skills that has been shown to be one of the most effective means of motivating patients to change addictive behavior (Miller and Rollnick, 2012) and has been used successfully in primary care settings as the brief intervention phase of addiction treatment (Rahm et al., 2014).

Unfortunately, PCPs screen less than half of their patients for tobacco use and less than a third for alcohol use (Roche & Freeman, 2004; Seale et al., 2010). Brief interventions happen even less often than screening (NDCP, 2008). In patients who screened positive for substance use, less than 75% received a brief intervention. A lack of adequate training is the most frequently reported barrier to screening and brief intervention (Le et al., 2015). Appropriate follow-up is also happening less often as well (D’Amico et al., 2005). Only 48% of people with excessive alcohol use reported receiving follow-up, with most simply being told to “stop drinking”. There is also a practice gap in referral to treatment. Less than one-fifth of PCPs make a referral after screening positively for substance abuse or risky substance use (Madras et al., 2009). Primary care physicians need to understand the different types of specialty treatment so that they can make appropriate referrals for their substance abuse patients (SAMHSA, 1997).

 

Practice Gap References

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Le KB, Johnson AJ, Seale JP, Woodall H, Clark DC, Parish DC, Miller DP. Primary care residents lack comfort and experience with alcohol screening and brief intervention: A multi-site survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2015; 30: 790-796. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666210 Accessed on: 2015-06-19.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Screen & brief intervention. . 2008. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ondcp/screen_brief_intv.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Seale JP, Shellenberger S, Velzsquez MM, Boltri JM, Okosun I, Guyinn M, Vinson D, Cornelius M, Johnson JA. Impact of vital signs screening and clinician prompting on alcohol and tobacco screening and intervention rates: a pre-post intervention comparison. BMC Fam Pract. 2010; 11:18: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205740 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.

Evidence suggests low implementation rates for screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) for patients with substance use problems in a primary care setting (Seale et al., 2010; CDC, 2017) despite evidence of efficacy (Agerwala & McCance-Katz, 2012; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Approximately 20 to 25% of primary care patients are likely to have a current substance use or health-related problem (Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Inadequate training is the most frequently reported barrier to practicing SBIRT (Le et al., 2015). Less than 2% of admissions for substance abuse treatment are referrals from primary care providers (Miller & Carroll, 2011).

Medical schools and post-graduate residency education do not typically prepare medical students and residents for implementing SBIRT (Saitz, 2013).

Due to inadequate SBIRT training, primary care providers not only lack confidence in assessing unhealthy substance use, but also express uncertainty in their ability to perform brief interventions and confusion regarding handling referrals for substance use patients who need a higher level of care than they can provide (Saitz, 2013).

Primary care providers screen fewer than half their patients for tobacco use and less than a third for alcohol use (Roche & Freeman, 2004; Seale et al., 2010). Brief interventions happen even less often (NDCP, 2008). Fewer than 75% of patients who screened positively received a brief intervention.

 

Practice Gap References

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

American Public Health Association. Alcohol Screening and Brief Intervention: A guide for public health practitioners. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2008. Available at: https://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/alcohol_screening_and_brief_interventions_a_guide_for_public_health_practitioners.pdf Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Le KB, Johnson AJ, Seale JP, Woodall H, Clark DC, Parish DC, Miller DP. Primary care residents lack comfort and experience with alcohol screening and brief intervention: A multi-site survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2015; 30: 790-796. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666210 Accessed on: 2015-06-19.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Miller W, Carroll K. Rethinking Substance Abuse: What the Science Shows, and What We Should Do about It. Guilford Publications. 2011. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Rethinking-Substance-Abuse-Science-Should/dp/1606236989 Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Screen & brief intervention. . 2008. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ondcp/screen_brief_intv.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Pringle JL, Kowalchuk A, Meyers JA, Seale JP. Equipping residents to address alcohol and drug abuse: The national SBIRT residency training project. Journal of Graduate Medical Education. 2012; 4: 58-63. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23451308 Accessed on: 2017-07-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Ruiz P, Strain EC, Lowinson JH. Lowinson and Ruiz’s substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook. Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2011. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Lowinson-Ruizs-Substance-Abuse-Comprehensive/dp/1605472778 Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Saitz R. Addressing Unhealthy Alcohol Use in Primary Care. Springer. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Addressing-Unhealthy-Alcohol-Primary-Care/dp/146144778X Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Seale JP, Shellenberger S, Velzsquez MM, Boltri JM, Okosun I, Guyinn M, Vinson D, Cornelius M, Johnson JA. Impact of vital signs screening and clinician prompting on alcohol and tobacco screening and intervention rates: a pre-post intervention comparison. BMC Fam Pract. 2010; 11:18: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205740 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.

21 USC § 812 . Schedules of controlled substances. www.law.cornell.edu/uscode. 2012. Available at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/812#b_3 Accessed on: 2013-12-04.

Actavis Elizabeth LLC. Buprenorphine HCl and naloxone HCl prescribing information. Actavis. 2013. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=110562 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Addiction Treatment Forum. History of Buprenorphine. Addiction Treatment Forum Website. 2013. Available at: http://atforum.com/2013/02/history-of-buprenorphine/ Accessed on: 2015-04-09.

Agency Medical Director’s Group. Interagency guideline on opioid dosing for chronic non-cancer pain. http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/. . Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/files/opioidgdline.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

Al-Tayyib A, Rice E, Rhoades H, Riggs P. Association between prescription drug misuse and injection among runaway homeless youth. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 134: 406-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24300900 Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Alford D, LaBelle C, Richardson J, O’Connell J, Hohl C, Cheng D, Samet J. Treating Homeless Opioid Dependent Patients with Buprenorphine in an Office-Based Setting. Society of General Internal Medicine. 2007; 22: 171-176. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1824722/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892816/

Alford DP, Labelle CT, Kretsch N, Bergeron A, Winter M, Botticelli M, Samet JH. Collaborative care of opioid-addicted patients in primary care using buprenorphine: five-year experience. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2011; 171(5): 425-31. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3059544/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Alho H, Sinclair D, Vuori E, Holopainen A. Abuse liability of buprenorphine-naloxone tablets in untreated IV drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 88(1): 75-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055191 Accessed on: 2013-12-09.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications.. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/opioid-safe-storage-and-disposal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-07.

Amass L, Ling W, Freese TE, et al. Bringing buprenorphine-naloxone detoxification to community treatment providers: the NIDA Clinical Trials Network field experience. Am J Addict. 2004; 13 Suppl 1: S42-66. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1255908/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/5/1078.abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013; 5th ed.: . Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). Drug Testing As A Component Of Addiction Treatment and Monitoring Programs and in Other Clinical Settings. ASAM.org. 2010. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2011/12/15/drug-testing-as-a-component-of-addiction-treatment-and-monitoring-programs-and-in-other-clinical-settings Accessed on: 2013-12-31.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Arfken CL, Johanson CE, di Menza S, Schuster CR. Expanding treatment capacity for opioid dependence with office-based treatment with buprenorphine: National surveys of physicians. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2010; 39(2): 96-104. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598829 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

ASAM . Advancing access to addiction medications . Advancing access to addiction medications: Implications for opioid addiction treatment . 2013. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/aaam_implications-for-opioid-addiction-treatment_final Accessed on: 2015-05-29.

ASAM Board of Directors. ASAM Public Policy Statement: Definition of Addiction. American Society of Addiction Medicine Website. 2011. Available at: http://www.asam.org/for-the-public/definition-of-addiction Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

ASAM. Summary of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act. ASAM Advocacy. 2016. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/issues/opioids/summary-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act Accessed on: 2016-09-19.

Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO). Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome: How States Can Help Advance the Knowledge Base for Primary Prevention and Best Practices of Care. ASTHO. 2014. Available at: http://www.astho.org/Prevention/NAS-Neonatal-Abstinence-Report/ Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://www.talkingalcohol.com/files/pdfs/WHO_audit.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-21.

Baca CT, Yahne CE. Smoking cessation during substance abuse treatment: what you need to know. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009; 36(2): 205-19. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18715746 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Back SE , Payne RL , Simpson AN . Gender and prescription opioids: findings from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Addict Behav. 2010; 35: 1001-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598809 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Belbuca. Belbuca HPC important safety information. www.belbuca.com. 2015. Available at: https://www.belbuca.com/pdf/Belbuca%20HCP%20ISI%20BL-03965.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

BioDelivery Sciences International . Bunavail prescribing information . BDSI. 2014. Available at: http://www.bdsi.com/siteres.aspx?resid=5a738443-a797-41cd-a39a-a8deb2a4a585 Accessed on: 2014-10-06.

BioDelivery Sciences International. Bunavail package insert. Highlights of prescribing information. BiodeliverySciences.com. 2014; 6/2014: 1-27. Available at: http://www.bdsi.com/siteres.aspx?resid=5a738443-a797-41cd-a39a-a8deb2a4a585 Accessed on: 2015-03-03.

Biodelivery sciences receives FDA approval for BunavailTM (buprenorphine and naloxone) buccal film for the maintenance of treatment of opioid dependence. Biodelivery Sciences Website. 2014; September 4: . Available at: http://bdsi.investorroom.com/2014-06-06-BioDelivery-Sciences-Receives-FDA-Approval-for-BUNAVAIL-buprenorphine-and-naloxone-Buccal-Film-for-the-Maintenance-Treatment-of-Opioid-Dependence Accessed on: 2014-09-11.

Birnbaum HG , White AG, Schiller M . Societal costs of prescription opioid abuse, dependence, and misuse in the United States.. Pain Med . 2011; 4: 657-67. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/advocacy/societal-costs-of-prescription-opioid-abuse-dependence-and-misuse-in-the-united-states.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-07.

Bliesener N, Albrecht S, Schwager A, et al.. Plasma testosterone and sexual function in men receiving buprenorphine maintenance for opioid dependence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90(1): 203. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15483091 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Blow FC. Special issues in treatment: old adults. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, May-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, 3rd ed. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Blueshift Research. Camurus and Inpior Set to Significantly Sway the Opioid Abuse Treatment Market . Blueshift Research Report. 2017. Accessed on: 2017-03-21.

BMJ. Benzodiazepine overdose. BMJ Best Practice, BMJ Publishing Group Limited. 2017. Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/343/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed on: 2017-04-18.

Borg L, Kreek MJ. The pharmacology of opioids. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine. 3rd ed. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003; 3: . Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Brady KT, Myrick H, Sonne S. Comorbid addiction and affective disorders. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Second Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 1998. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851027/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Brands B, Blake J, Sproule B, et al. Prescription opioid abuse in patients presenting for methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; 73(2): 199-207. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14725960 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27: 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Bruce RD. Methadone as HIV prevention: high volume methadone sites to decrease HIV incidence rates in resource limited settings. International Journal of Drug Policy . 2010; 21: 122-124. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19931444 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Burch, K. Injectable Buprenorphine Moves Closer To FDA Approval. theFix. 2017; 1/27/`7: . Available at: https://www.thefix.com/injectable-buprenorphine-moves-closer-fda-approval Accessed on: 2017-03-21.

CADCA. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act (CARA). CADCA.org. 2016. Available at: http://www.cadca.org/comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-caraAccessed on: 2016-09-19.

Campbell AN, Nunes EV, Matthews AG, et al. Internet-delivered treatment for substance abuse: a multisite randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171: 683-690. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4079279/ Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Casadonte PP. PCSS Guidance: Buprenorphine Induction. Physician Clinical Support System Website. 2009. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceBuprenorphineInduction.Casadonte.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

CDC. Prescription Drug Overdose Data. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control . 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/overdose.html Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

CDC. Understanding the epidemic. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, pision of Unintentional Injury Prevention. 2017. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/epidemic/index.html Accessed on: 2018-04-10.

CDC. Vital Signs: Overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 1999-2008. MMWR. 2011; 60(43): 1487-92. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6043a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/. 2016; HHS Publication No. SMA 16-4984, NSDUH Series H-51: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015.pdf Accessed on: 2017-07-14.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Opioids drive continued increase in drug overdose deaths [Press Release]. cdc.gov. 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0220_drug_overdose_deaths.html Accessed on: 2014-01-17.

Chen MC, Beebe K. A randomized trial of Probuphine implants in adults stabilized on sublingual buprenorphine. American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) Annual Meeting. 2016. Available at: https://braeburnpharmaceuticals.com/probuphine-phase-iii-data-presented-at-american-society-of-addiction-medicine-asam-annual-meeting/

Chiang CN, Hawks RL. Pharmacokinetics of the combination tablet of buprenorphine and naloxone. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(suppl 2): S39-S47.

Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. J of Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187889 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Christo PJ, Manchikanti L, Ruan X, Bottros M, Hansen H, Solanki DR, Jordan AE, Colson J. Urine Drug Testing In Chronic Pain. Pain Physician . 2011; 14: 123-143. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412368 Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Chychula NM, Sciamanna C. Help substance abusers attain and sustain abstinence. Nurse Pract. 2002; 27(11): 30-47. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12444364 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Cicero JT, Dart RC, Inciardi JA, Woody GE, Schnoll S, Munoz A. The Development of a Comprehensive Risk-Management Program for Prescription Opioid Analgesics: Researched Abuse, persion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(2): 157-169. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305687 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Cicero TJ, Surratt HL, Inciardi J. Use and misuse of buprenorphine in the management of opioid addiction. J Opioid Manag. 2007; 3(6): 302-8. Available at: http://www.naddi.org/aws/NADDI/asset_manager/get_file/2740 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Cirone S. Brief Intervention: Adolescent with Prescription Opioid Use Disorder. YouTube. 2013. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAKRz9TiJUEAccessed on: 2015-04-27.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Assessing pain with PQRSTU. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/cKR27q9g-_o Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Conigliaro J, Reyes CD, Parran TV, Schulz JE. Principles of screening and early intervention. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Czerkes M. Buprenorphine Versus Methadone Treatment for Opiate Addiction in Pregnancy: An Evaluation of Neonatal Outcomes. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Annual Clinical Meeting. 2010.

Dahan A, Yassen A, Romberg R, et al. Buprenorphine induces ceiling in respiratory depression but not in analgesia. Br J Anaesth. 2006; 96(5): 627-32. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16547090 Accessed on: 2014-09-11.

Daitch D, Daitch J, Novinson D, et al. Conversion from high-dose full-opioid agonists to sublingual buprenorphine reduces pain scores and improves quality of life for chronic pain patients. . Pain Med. 2014; 15(12): 2087-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25220043 Accessed on: 2016-06-04.

Darke S, Ross J. Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods. Addiction. 2002; 97(11): 1383-1394.

Darnell B, Stieg RL. Boots on the Ground in Opioid Tapering: A Low-Cost, Medically Supervised Psychobehavioral Prescription Opioid Taper Program for Community-Dwelling Patients. American Academy of Pain Medicine 2016 Annual Meeting. 2016. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/2016posters/abstract-163/Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

Dart R. Evaluation of ADFs Using RADARS System Data. RADARS System. 2011. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/RADARS(R)%20System_2011%20Annual%20Meeting%20Summary.pdf Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

Dart RC. Opioid Abuse, Misuse, and persion: Strategies for Prevention. Researched Abuse, persion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). American Academy of Pain Medicine Meeting. 2009. Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Dasgupta N. RADARS System Subutex & Suboxone: How Much is Prescribed vs. Abuse/persion Reports. SAMHSA Meeting on Buprenorphine. 2010. Available at: http://docs.clinicaltools.com/pdf/Buppractice/HowMuchIsPrescribed.pdf Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

Davis MP. Twelve reasons for considering buprenorphine as a frontline analgesic in the management of pain. SupportiveOncology.net. 2012. Available at: http://xyane.com/upload/forum/201342423942.pdf Accessed on: 2016-06-02.

De Vries TJ, Shippenberg TS. Neural systems underlying opiate addiction. J Neurosci. 2002; 22(9): 3321-3325. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/9/3321.long Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Mandatory guidelines for federal workplace drug testing programs. Federal Register. 2008; 73(228): 71858-71907. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-11-25/html/E8-26726.htm Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Donaher PA, Welsh C. Managing opioid addiction with buprenorphine. American Family Physician. 2006; 73(9): 1573-8. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0501/p1573.html Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). Highlights of the 2011 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) Findings on Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. The Dawn Report. 2013; 127: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k13/DAWN127/sr127-DAWN-highlights.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Buprenorphine . Drug Enforcement Administration Office of persion Control. 2013. Available at: https://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/buprenorphine.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration, Justice. § 1301.75 Physical security controls for practitioners. DEA. 2005. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2009-title21-vol9/pdf/CFR-2009-title21-vol9-sec1301-76.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration. Code of Federal Regulations: Section 1304.03 Maintenance of records and inventories. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Office of persion Control. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1304/1304_04.htm Accessed on: 2011-07-03.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2011. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm

Drugs.com. Buprenorphine/Naloxone. Drugs.com. Copyright 1996-2017 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 8.01.. Revision Date: 2017-02-06, 10:16:30 AM. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/buprenorphine-naloxone Accessed on: 2017-02-22.

Drugs.com. Doxazosin. Drugs.com. Copyright 1996-2017 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 8.01.. Revision Date: 2015-11-16, 3:09:59 PM. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/doxazosin.html Accessed on: 2017-01-03.

Drugs.com. Naloxone. FDA Professional Drug Information. Copyright 2000-2015; Last updated Jan-Feb, 2015. Available at: http://www.drugs.com/pro/naloxone.html Accessed on: 2015-02-09.

Dunn KE, Sigmon SC, Strain EC, et al.. The association between outpatient buprenorphine detoxification duration and clinical treatment outcomes: a review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011; 119(1-2): 1-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21741781 Accessed on: 2014-10-03.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et. al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Durand F, Valla D. Assessment of prognosis of cirrhosis. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2008; 28(1): 110-122. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18293281 Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Russo JE, et al.. The role of opioid prescription in incident opioid abuse and dependence among inpiduals with chronic noncancer pain: the role of opioid prescription. Clin J Pain. 2014; 30(7): 557-64. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24281273 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Egan JE, Casadonte P, Gartenmann T, Martin J, McCance-Katz EF, Netherland J, Renner JA, Weiss L, Saxon AJ, Fiellin DA. The Physician Clinical Support System-Buprenorphine (PCSS-B): a novel project to expand/improve buprenorphine treatment. J Gen Intern Med. 2010; 25(9): 936-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917666/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Eggleston W, Clark KH, Marraffa JM. Loperamide abuse associated with cardiac dysrhythmia and death. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2016; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.047: . Available at: http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30052-X/fulltext Accessed on: 2016-05-04.

Erdemoglu AK, Koc R. Brief Pain Inventory score identifying and discriminating neuropathic and nociceptive pain.. Acta Neurol Scand. 2013; 128(5): 351-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23594114 Accessed on: 2016-04-12.

Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, Ayers A, Schuster J, Cilia A, Flaherty MT, Mandell T, Gordon AJ, Stein BD. Practice Guidance for Buprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Substance Abuse Journal. 2015; 36(2): 209-216. Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, et al. Practice Guidelines for Burprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Substance Abuse Journal. 2015; 36(2): . Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08897077.2015.1012613?redirect=1#.VgWAsMtVhBc Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Farney RJ, McDonald AM, Boyle KM, Snow GL, Nuttall RT, Coudreaut MF, Wander TJ, Walker JM. Sleep disordered breathing in patients receiving therapy with buprenorphine/naloxone. Eur Respir. 2013; 42: 394-403. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23100497 Accessed on: 2014-01-27.

FDA. CLIA – Clinical laboratory improvement amendments – currently waived analytes. FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfClia/analyteswaived.cfm Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

FDA. FDA announces enhanced warnings for immediate-release opioid pain medications related to risks of misuse, abuse, addiction, overdose and death. FDA News Release. March 22, 2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm491739.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

FDA. FDA announces safety labeling changes and postmarket study requirements for extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics. FDA Website. 2013. Available at: https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112130229/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm367726.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

FDA. FDA approves first buprenorphine implant for treatment of opioid dependence. FDA News & Events. 2016; May 26, 2016: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm503719.htm?source=govdelivery&utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery Accessed on: 2016-05-27.

FDA. FDA approves first once-monthly buprenorphine injection, a medication-assisted treatment option for opioid use disorder. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, News and Events. November 30, 2017. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm587312.htm?utm_campaign=FDA%20approves%20new%20medication-assisted%20treatment%20option%20for%20opioid%20use%20disorder&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua Accessed on: 2017-12-01.

FDA. FDA approves the first non-opioid treatment for management of opioid withdrawal symptoms in adults. U.S. FDA News Release. 2018. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm607884.htm Accessed on: 2018-05-20.

FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns about several safety issues with opioid pain medicines; requires label changes . FDA U.S. Food & Drug Administration. 3/22/2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm489676.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-24.

FDA. Medication Guide: Butrans™ CIII (buprenorphine) Transdermal System. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM220880.pdf

FDA. Medication Guide: Zubsolv Sublingual Tablet (CIII). FDA. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/UCM362203.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-23.

Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States. Model policy for the use of controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. 2013 updated, 2004. Available at: http://www.painpolicy.wisc.edu/sites/www.painpolicy.wisc.edu/files/FSMB_pain_policy_july2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Fiellin D. Treatment of acute pain in patients receiving buprenorphine/naloxone. Physician Clinical Support System (PCSS) Clinical Guidance. 2005. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentOfAcutePainInPatientsReceivingBup.Fiellin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-02.

Fiellin D. Treatment of Acute Pain in Patients Receiving Buprenorphine/Naloxone. Providers’ Clinical Support System. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentOfAcutePainInPatientsReceivingBup.Fiellin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Fiellin DA, Rosenheck RA, Kosten TR. Office-based treatment for opioid dependence: reaching new patient populations. Am J Psychiatry. 2001; 158(8): 1200-1204. Available at: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1200 Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Fiellin DA, Schottenfeld RS, Cutter CJ, et al. Primary care-based buprenorphine taper vs maintenance therapy for prescription opioid dependence: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2014; 174(12): 1947-1954. Available at: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1916910 Accessed on: 2016-03-02.

Finch JW, Kamien JB, Amass L. Two-year experience with buprenorphine-naloxone (Suboxone) for maintenance treatment of opioid dependence within a private practice setting.. Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2014; 1(2): 104-110. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21768942 Accessed on: 2016-03-02.

Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review. Pain Medicine. 2008; 9(4): 444-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Fishman MJ, Mee-Lee D, Shulman GD, et al. Supplement to the ASAM Patient Placement Criteriaon the Management of Alcohol Use Disorders. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Inc.. 2010. Available at: http://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

Fishman MJ, Wu LT, Woody GE. Buprenorphine for Prescription Opioid Addiction in a Patient With Depression and Alcohol Dependence . Am J Psychiatry. 2011; 168(7): 675–679. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178807/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Appropriate Use Checklist. btodrems.com. 2013. Available at: https://www.btodrems.com/Portal/Content%20Library/Appropriate%20Use%20Checklist.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Buprenorphine Drug Label. NDA 20-732, NDA 20-733. 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM191529.pdf

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Buprenorphine-containing Transmucosal products for Opioid Dependence (BTOD) Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS). Food and Drug Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM340914.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-07.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Medications Guide. btodrems.com. 2013. Available at: https://www.btodrems.com/SitePages/MedicationGuides.aspxAccessed on: 2013-10-09.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Physician Information: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions. NDA 20-732. 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM191532.pdf Accessed on: 2011-07-07.

Frenk SM, Porter KS , Paulozzi LJ . Prescription opioid analgesic use among adults: United States, 1999-2012. NCHS data brief, no 189. 2015; 189: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db189.htm#ref1 Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Gallagher C. What Waivered Physicans Need to Understand About DEA Requirements. PCSS-B Web Seminar . 2010. Available at: https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Practice/Professional-Topics/Addiction-Psychiatry/PCSMAT/Webinar-Slides-What-Waivered-Physicians-Need-to-Understand-About-DEA-Requirements.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-11.

Garra G, Singer AJ, Taira BR, et al. Validation of the Wong-Baker FACES pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Academic Emergency Medicine. 2010; 17: 50-54. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20003121 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Glasper A, Reed LJ, de Wet CJ, Gossop M, Bearn J. Induction of patients with moderately severe methadone dependence onto buprenorphine. Addiction Biology. 2005; 10(2): 149-155. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16191667 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Gourlay D, Heit H, Caplan Y. Urine Drug Testing in Primary Care: Dispelling the Myths & Designing Strategies. California Academy of Family Physicians. 2002. Available at: http://www.alaskaafp.org/udt.pdf Accessed on: 2005-03-15.

Gourlay D. Urine Drug Testing in Chronic Pain: A Patient Centered Approach (AMA) [webinar]. American Medical Association. 2013. Available at: https://pcss-o.org/event/urine-drug-testing-in-chronic-pain-a-patient-centered-approach/ Accessed on: 2013-12-31.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Caplan YH. Urine Drug Testing in Clinical Practice: The Art and Science of Patient Care. Johns Hopkins Medicine. 2012; 5: . Available at: http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/ama/downloads/udt5_Copy.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Gruber VA, McCance-Katz EF. Methadone, buprenorphine, and street drug interactions with antiretroviral medications.. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2010; 7(3): 152-60. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20532839 Accessed on: 2015-07-29.

Gudin JA, Mogali S, Jones JD. Risks, management, and monitoring of combination opioid, benzodiazepines, and/or alcohol use. Postgrad Med. 2013; 125(4): 115-130. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4057040/ Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Gunderson E. Models of Buprenorphine Induction. PCSSMAT Training. 2014. Available at: http://www.pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Buprenorphine-Induction-Online-Module.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

Guo AY, Ma JD, Best BM, Atayee RS. Urine specimen detection of concurrent nonprescribed medicinal and illicit drug use in patients prescribed buprenorphine.Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 2013; 37(9): 636-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24080973 Accessed on: 2014-01-06.

Gyarmathy VA, Neaigus A, Miller M, Friedman SR, Des Jarlais DC. Risk correlates of prevalent HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among noninjecting heroin users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002; 30(4): 448-456. Available at: http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1525-4135&volume=30&issue=4&spage=448 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Hagan H, Pouget ER, Des Jarlais DC. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Prevent Hepatitis C Virus Infection in People Who Inject Drugs. The Journal of Infectious Diseases . 2011; 204: 74-83. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21628661 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Hahn JA, Page-Shafer K, Lum PJ, Ochoa K, Moss AR. Hepatitis C virus infection and needle exchange use among young injection drug users in San Francisco. Hepatology. 2001; 34(1): 180-187. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11431749 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Hale, Viner. Trends in the prevalence of multiple substance use in adolescents in England, 1998-2009. J of Public Health, Oxford. 2013; 35(3): 367-74. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23528672 Accessed on: 2015-04-24.

Harned M, Sloan P. Safety concerns with long-term opioid use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016; PMID: 27070052: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27070052 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Hasin D, Liu X-H, Nunes E, McCloud S, Samet S, Endicott J. Effects of major depression on remission and relapse of substance dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002; 59: 375–380. Available at: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=206176 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Health and Human Services. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders Reporting Requirements. Federal Register. 2016; Doc. 2016-23277: . Available at: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/09/27/2016-23277/medication-assisted-treatment-for-opioid-use-disorders-reporting-requirements Accessed on: 2016-09-29.

Heit HA, Gourlay DL. Urine drug testing in pain medicine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 260-267. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010104Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Heit HA. Patient-centered urine drug testing: Facts you should know!. PCSS. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Heit-ASAM-PCSS-MAT-Online-Module-2.pdf Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

Henry JA. Metabolic consequences of drug misuse. Br J Anaesth. 2000; 85(1): 136-142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10928002 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Herve S, Riachi G, Noblet C, Guillement N, Tanasescu S, Odile G, Thuillez C, Tranvouez J, Ducrotte P, Lerebours E. Acute hepatitis due to buprenorphine administration. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2004; 16(10): 1033-1037. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15371928Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Hesse M. The ASRS-6 Has Two Latent Factors: Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2011; 17(3): 203–207. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22262467 Accessed on: 2015-04-21.

HHS. HHS announces new actions to combat opioid epidemic. HHS.gov. 2016; July 6: . Available at: http://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2016/07/06/hhs-announces-new-actions-combat-opioid-epidemic.html Accessed on: 2016-07-06.

Hopfer CJ, Khuri E, Crowley TJ, Hooks S. Adolescent heroin use: a review of the descriptive and treatment literature. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002; 23(3): 231-237. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12392810 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Huestis MA. High-dose buprenorphine in humans. In: Kintz P, Marquet P, eds. Buprenorphine Therapy of Opiate Addiction. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, Inc. 2002. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/158829031X

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

Inpior Inc. Suboxone Highlights of Prescribing Information. www.suboxone.com. Initial 2002, Recent Major Changes 12/2016; Reference ID: 4055394: 1-29. Available at: https://www.suboxone.com/content/pdfs/prescribing-information.pdf Accessed on: 2017-03-30.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing The Quality Chasm: A New Health System For The 21st Century. IOM. 2001. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Invidior. Sublocade: Highlights of Prescribing Information. . 2017. Available at: http://inpior.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/SUBLOCADE-Prescribing-Information.pdf Accessed on: 2017-12-01.

Irwin RS, Rippe JM. Irwin and Rippe’s Intensive Care Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2012. Available at: http://www.lww.com/Product/9781608311835

Johanson CE, Arfken CL, DiMenza S, Schuster CR. persion and abuse of buprenorphine: Findings from national surveys of treatment patients and physicians. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2012; 120(1-30: 190-195. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21862241 Accessed on: 2012-07-19.

Johnson RE, Strain EC, Amass L. Buprenorphine: how to use it right. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(suppl 2): S59-S77. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12738351 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Jones CM, Logan J, Gladden M, et al.. Vital signs: Demographic and substance use trends among heroin users — United States, 2002-2013. MMWR. 2015; 64(26): 719-725. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6426a3.htm?s_cid=mm6426a3_w Accessed on: 2015-07-10.

Jones HE, Fischer G, Heil SH. Maternal Opioid Treatment: Human Experimental Research (MOTHER) – approach, issues and lessons learned. Addiction . 2012; 107: 28-35. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04036.x/full Accessed on: 2014-12-22.

Jones HE, Kaltenbach K, Heil SH, Stine SM, Coyle MG, Arria AM, O’Grady KE, Selby P, Martin PR, Fischer G. Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome after Methadone or Buprenorphine Exposure. New England Journal of Medicine. 2010; 363: 2320-2331. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1005359 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Jones HE. Treating opioid use disorders during pregnancy: historical, current, and future directions. Subst Abus. 2013; 34(2): 89-91. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23577898 Accessed on: 2014-02-05.

Joseph AM, Willenbring ML, Nugent SM, Nelson DB. A randomized trial of concurrent versus delayed smoking intervention for patients in alcohol dependence treatment. J Stud Alcohol. 2004; 65(6): 681-91. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15700504 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Jung O, Haack HS, Buettner M. Renal AA-amyloidosis in intravenous drug users – a role for HIV-infection?. BMC Nephrology . 2012; 13: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23171281 Accessed on: 2015-05-05.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Ordean A, Cirone S. Buprenorphine: New treatment of opioid addiction in primary care. Can Fam Physician. 2011; 57: 281-289. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3056674/ Accessed on: 2013-12-04.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Ordean A, Cirone S. Buprenorphine: new treatment of opioid addiction in primary care. Canadian Family Physician. 2011; 57(3): 281-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3056674/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kakko J, Svanborg KD, Kreek MJ, Heilig M. 1-year retention and social function after buprenorphine-assisted relapse prevention treatment for heroin dependence in Sweden: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003; 361(9358): 662-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12606177 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Kalman D, Morissette SB, George TP. Co-Morbidity of Smoking in Patients with Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. Am J Addict. 2005; 14(2): 106–123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1199553/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Kao MC, Zheng P, Mackey S, et al.. Trends in Benzodiazepine Prescription and Co-Prescription with Opioids in the United States, 2002––2009. AAPM Annual Meeting. . Available at: http://www.painmed.org/2014posters/abstract-109/ Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Kaul P, Coupey SM. Clinical evaluation of substance abuse. Pediatr Rev. 2002; 23(3): 85-94. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11875181 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kidorf M, Disney ER, King VL, Neufeld K, Beilenson PL, Brooner RK. Prevalence of psychiatric and substance use disorders in opioid abusers in a community syringe exchange program. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; May 10; 74(2): 115-22. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15099655 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Kissin W, McLeod C, Sonnefeld J, Stanton A. Experiences of a National Sample of Qualified Addiction Specialists Who Have and Have Not Prescribed Buprenorphine for Opioid Dependence. Journal of Addictive Diseases. 2006; 25(4): 91-103. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17088229 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kleber H, Weiss R, Anton R, et al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with substance use disorders, 3rd edition. American Psychiatric Association. 2010. Available at: http://www.guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=24158 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Klimas J, Field CA, Cullen W. Psychosocial interventions to reduce alcohol consumption in concurrent problem alcohol and illicit drug users: Cochrane Review. Systematic Reviews . 2013; 2: . Available at: http://systematicreviewsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-4053-2-3 Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/153/6/591 Accessed on: 2011-07-14.

Kosten TR, George TP. The neurobiology of opioid addiction: implications for treatment. NIDA Science and Practice Perspectives. 2002; 1(1): 13-20. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851054/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kraus ML, Alford DP, Kotz MM, et al. Statement of the American Society of Addiction Medicine Consensus Panel on the Use of Buprenorphine in Office-Based Treatment of Opioid Addiction.. Journal of Addiction Medicine . 2011; 5(4): 254-263. Available at: https://www.asam.org/docs/advocacy/use-of-buprenorphine-in-office-based-treatment-of-opioid-addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-12-12.

Krebs EE, Lorenz KA, Bair MJ. Development and initial validation of the PEG, a three-item scale assessing pain intensity and interference. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(6): 733-738. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686775/ Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Labelle C, Han SC, Bergeron A, Samet JH. Office-Based Opioid Treatment with Buprenorphine (OBOT-B): Statewide Implementation of the Massachusetts Collaborative Care Model in Community Health Centers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2015; 15: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26233698

Labelle C. 2014 Updated Information on Buprenorphine Maintenance Treatment. Personal Communication. 2014. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/news-releases/2014/11/buprenorphine-tapering-less-effective-than-ongoing-maintenance-prescription-opioid-abuse

Lange CM , Jacobson IM, Rice CM. Emerging therapies for the treatment of hepatitis C. EMBO Molecular Medicine. 2014; 6: 4-15. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/emmm.201303131/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Larance B, Lintzeris N, Dietze P, et al. The persion and injection of a buprenorphine-naloxone soluble film formulation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014; 136: 21-7. Available at: http://www.drugandalcoholdependence.com/article/S0376-8716(13)00521-8/abstract Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Lavonas EJ, Banner W, Bradt P, Bucher-Bartelson B, Brown KR, Rajan P, Murrelle L, Dart RC, Green JL. Root causes, clinical effects, and outcomes of unintentional exposures to buprenorphine by young children. Journal of Pediatrics. 2013; 163(5): 1377-83. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23993129 Accessed on: 2014-01-06.

Lee JD, Friedmann PD, Kinlock TW, et al.. Extended-release naltrexone to prevent opioid relapse in criminal justice offenders. N Engl J Med. 2016; 374: 1232-1242. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1505409 Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

Lee, JD, Grossman, E, DiRocco, D, Gourevitch, MN. Home buprenorphine/naloxone induction in primary care. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(2): 226–232. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19089508

Leger DL. Study: heroin use is higher than a decade ago . USA Today . 2015. Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/04/23/heroin-use-higher-than-a-decade-ago/26193771/ Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Lemon SC, Friedmann PD, Stein MD. The impact of smoking cessation on drug abuse treatment outcome. Addict Behav. 2003; 28(7): 1323-31. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12915172 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Levounis P. Focus on Marijuana: Current Risks and Controversies. American Psychiatric Association Webinar. 2012. Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/professional-interests/addiction-psychiatry Accessed on: 2014-01-21.

Levy S, Vaughan BL, Angulo M, Knight JR. Buprenorphine replacement therapy for adolescents with opioid dependence: early experience from a children’s hospital-based outpatient treatment program. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2007; 40(5): 477-82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17448411 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Ling W, Casadonte P, Bigelow G, Kampman KM, Patkar A, Bailey GL, Rosenthal RN, Beebe KL. Buprenorphine Implants for Treatment of Opioid Dependence. JAMA. 2010; 304(14): 1576-83. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20940383 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Ling W, Hillhouse , Domier C, Doraimani G, Hunter J, Thomas C, Jenkins J, Hasson A, Annon J, Saxon A, Selzer J, Boverman J, Bilangi R. Buprenorphine tapering schedule and illicit opioid use. Addiction. 2009; 104(2): 256-65. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3150159/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Ling W. Prescription Drug Abuse. Presented at the Western Conference on Addiction, Universal City, CA, 11-13-05. 2005.

Lintzeris N, Clark N, Muhleisen P, et al. National Clinical Guidelines and Procedures for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Heroin Dependence. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health and Aged Care. Publication approval 2873. 2001. Available at: http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet%2Fdrugstrategy%2Fpublishing.nsf%2FContent%2Fbuprenorphine-guide Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Lofwall M. Minimizing the Risks of Buprenorphine persion and Misuse from Office-Based Treatment. PCSS-B webinar. 2011. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCkQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPractice%2FProfessional%2520Interests%2FAddiction%2520Psychiatry%2FLowfall-Slides.pdf&ei=88hWUourDe2z4AOrnYCoDw&usg=AFQjCNHmvSYlWX4L20O6XXOyX0CsKpY27A&bvm=bv.53760139,d.dmg Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Lofwall MR, Havens JR. Inability to access buprenorphine treatment as a risk factor for using perted buprenorphine. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2012; Jun 13 [Epub ahead of print]: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=inability%20to%20access%20buphrenorphine%20treatment%20as%20a%20risk%20factor%20for%20using%20perted%20buprenorphine

Lofwall MR, Walsh SL. A review of buprenorphine persion and misuse: the current evidence base and experiences from around the world. J Addict Med. 2014; 8(5): 315-26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25221984 Accessed on: 2014-10-03.

Lowes R. e-Prescribing Controlled Substances Now Legal Nationwide. MedScape. 2015. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/850268 Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

Lundahl B, Moleni T, Burke BL, et al. Motivational interviewing in medical care settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.. Patient Educ Couns. 2013; 93(2): 157-68. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001658 Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Madras BK, Wilson MC, Avula D, Stegbauer T, Stein JB, Clark HW. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites: Comparison at intake and six months. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 99(1-3): 280-295. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Magill M , Stout RL, Apodaca TR. Therapist focus on ambivalence and commitment: a longitudinal analysis of motivational interviewing treatment ingredients. Psychol Addict Behav. 2013; 27: 754-762. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.libproxy.lib.unc.edu/pmc/articles/PMC3650101/?tool=pmcentrez Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Manchikanti L, Manchukonda R, Damron KS. Does adherence monitoring reduce controlled substance abuse in chronic pain patients?. Pain Physician. 2006; 9(1): 57-60. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16700282 Accessed on: 2014-01-09.

Mannelli P, Peindl KS, Lee T. Buprenorphine-mediated transition from opioid agonist to antagonist treatment: state of the art and new perspectives. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2012; 5(1): 52-63. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3496559/ Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Manubay JM, Muchow C, Sullivan MA. Prescription drug abuse: epidemiology, regulatory issues, chronic pain management with narcotic analgesics. Prim Care. 2011; 38(1): 71-90, vi. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328297/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Maria A Sullivan , Adam J. Gordon (Original Author) . MAT training: Provider’s clinical support system for medication assisted treatmet. PCSS-MAT. 2013. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceOff-label-bup-for-pain.Gordon.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

Marshall, PS. Physical Functional Ability Questionnaire (FAQ5). In: Assessment and Management of Chronic Pain, 5th edition. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement. 2011; 14: Appendix C:99. Available at: http://www.generationsprimarycare.com/assets/pain-contract.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-10.

Martin J. Adherence, persion and Misuse of Sublingual Buprenorphine. PCSS MAT Training. 2010. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceAdherence-persion-bup.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-03.

Martin J. Adherence, persion and Misuse of Sublingual Buprenorphine. PCSS-MAT. 2009 (update 2014). Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceAdherence-persion-bup.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Martin J. PCSS-MAT Guidance: Pregnancy and buprenorphine treatment. Physicians’ Clinical Support System for Medication Assisted Treatment (PCSS-MAT). 2006. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/PCSS-MATGuidancePregnancy-and-Buprenorphine.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Martin J. Personal Communication re: number of patients maintained on buprenorphine. E-mail. 2011. Accessed on: 2011-03-31.

Martin T & Rocque M. Accidental and Non-Accidental Ingestion of Methadone and Buprenorphine in Childhood: A Single Center Experience, 1999-2009. Current Drug Safety. 2009; 6: 12-16. Available at: http://www.eurekaselect.com/73173/article Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Martins SS, Keyes KM , Storr CL. Pathways between non-medical opioid use/dependence and psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 2009; 103: 16-24. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2699563/Accessed on: 2015-04-24.

Matson SC, Hobson G, Abdel-Rasoul M, Bonny AE. A retrospective study of retention of opioid-dependent adolescents and young adults in an outpatient buprenorphine/naloxone clinic. Addict Behav. 2014; 8(3): 176-82.

Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. The Cochrane Library . 2014. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002207.pub4/abstract Accessed on: 2015-05-05.

Maxwell JC, McCance-Katz EF. Indicators of buprenorphine and methadone use and abuse: what do we know?. Am J Addict. 2010; 19(1): 73-88. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3723402/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Maxwell JC, McCance-Katz EF. Indicators of Buprenorphine and Methadone Use and Abuse: What Do We Know?. The American Journal on Addictions. 2009; 19: 73-88. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2009.00008.x/full Accessed on: 2014-05-21.

McCance-Katz EF, Moody DE, Morse GD, Ma Q, DiFrancesco R, Friedland G, Pade P, Rainey PM. Interaction between buprenorphine and atazanavir or atazanavir/ritonavir. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Science Direct. 2007; 91(2-3): 269-78. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272856/Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

McCance-Katz EF. Treatment of Opioid Dependence and Coinfection with HIV and Hepatitis C Virus in Opioid-Dependent Patients: The Importance of Drug Interactions between Opioids and Antiretroviral Agents. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 41(Suppl 1): S89-95. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16265622Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

McCarthy JJ, Leamon MH, Parr MS, Anania B. High-dose maintenance in pregnancy: maternal and neonatal outcomes. American Journal of Obstetric Gynecology. 2005; 193(3 Pt 1): 606-10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16150249 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

McLellan AT, McKay JR. Components of successful addiction treatment. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003; 3: . Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

McNicholas LF. Buprenorphine: Induction, Dosing and Related Issues. American Psychiatric Association Sponsored Webinar. 2011. Available at: http://vimeo.com/20803777 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Mdege ND , Lang J. Screening instruments for detecting illicit drug use abuse that could be useful in general hospital wards: a systematic review . Addictive Behaviors . 2011; 36: 1111-1119. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21821364 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Mee-Lee D (ed). The ASAM Criteria. ASAM. 2013; 3rd edition: . Available at: http://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria/about/ Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Melemis SM. Relapse prevention and the five rules of recovery. Yale J Biol Med. 2015; 88: 3. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4553654/Accessed on: 2018-04-10.

Melzack R. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain. 1975; 1: 277-299. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1235985 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Mendelson J, Jones RT. Clinical and pharmacological evaluation of buprenorphine and naloxone combinations: why the 4:1 ratio for treatment?. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(2S): S29-S37. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12738348 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Mersy D. Recognition of Alcohol and Substance Abuse. American Family Physician. 2003; 7: 1529-1532. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2003/0401/p1529.htmlAccessed on: 2015-12-04.

Miller WR , Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing. Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. An Overview of Motivational Interviewing. Motivational Interviewing. 2011. Available at: https://www.umass.edu/studentlife/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/Motivational_Interviewing_Definition_Principles_Approach.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing. Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.

Minozzi S, Amato L, Davoli M. Maintenance treatments for opiate dependent adolescent . Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009; 15(2): CD007210. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19370679 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Mintzer IL, Eisenberg M, Terra M, MacVane C, Himmelstein DU, Woolhandler S. Treating opioid addiction with buprenorphine-naloxone in community-based primary care settings. Ann Fam Med. 2007; 5(2): 146-50. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838690/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Monte AA, Mandell T, Wilford BB, et al. persion of buprenorphine/naloxone coformulated tablets in a region with high prescribing prevalence. J of Addictive Diseases. 2009; 28: 226-231. Available at: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F20155591&ei=5fQSVPjOAojP8AHbnIDIBQ&usg=AFQjCNFY2Avnj4kWPn6NZlM-DLGnDueyDA&bvm=bv.75097201,d.b2U Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Monto A, Currie S, Wright TL. Liver disease in injection drug users with hepatitis C, with and without HIV coinfection. J Addict Dis. 2008; 27(2): 49-59. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J069v27n02_06?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed#.Ula6dplDvmcAccessed on: 2013-10-10.

Moore BA, Fiellin DA, Barry DT, Sullivan LE, Chawarski MC, O’Conner PG, Schottenfeld RS. Primary care office-based buprenorphine treatment: comparison of heroin and prescription opioid dependent patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2007; 22: 527-530. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1829433/Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Moos RH, Moos BS, Finney JW. Predictors of deterioration among patients with substance-use disorders. J Clin Psychol. 2001; 57(12): 1403-1419. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11745584 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Morasco BJ, Cavanagh R, Gritzner S , Dobscha SK. Care management practices for chronic pain in veterans prescribed high doses of opioid medications.. Farm Pract . 2013; 6: 671-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2972371/ Accessed on: 2014-11-07.

NaloxoneInfo.org. Naloxone Information. NaloxoneInfo.org. . Available at: http://naloxoneinfo.org/sites/default/files/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions-Naloxone_EN.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Nasser AF, Heidbreder C, Liu Y, et al.. Pharmacokinetics of sublingual buprenorphine and naloxone in subjects with mild to severe hepatic impairment (Child-Pugh classes A, B, and C), in hepatitis C virus-seropositive subjects, and in healthy volunteers. . Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2015; 54(8): 837-49. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25603822 Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. NIH Analysis Shows Americans are in Pain. National Institutes of Health. 2015. Available at: https://nccih.nih.gov/news/press/08112015?nav=pin Accessed on: 2015-10-02.

National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC). Intelligence Bulletin: Buprenorphine: Potential for Abuse. The United States Department of Justice Archives. 2004. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs10/10123/index.htm Accessed on: 2013-12-10.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Linked Epidemics: Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS. Topics in Brief. 2005. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/topics-in-brief/linked-epidemics-drug-abuse-hivaids Accessed on: 2011-04-16.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide. Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2012; December: . Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

NCCHC. Substance Use Disorder Treatment for Adults and Adolescents. National Commission on Correctional Health Care. 2016. Available at: http://www.ncchc.org/substance-use-disorder-treatment-for-adults-and-adolescents Accessed on: 2016-12-13.

Neaigus A, Miller M, Gyarmathy VA, Friedman SR. HIV heterosexual sexual risk from injecting drug users among HIV-seronegative noninjecting heroin users. Subst Use Misuse. 2011; 46(2-3): 208-17. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21303241 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

NIAAA. Alcohol Facts and Statistics. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 2005. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2011-07-13.

NIDA. Screening for drug use in general medical settings. Resource guide.. http://www.drugabuse.gov. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide/preface Accessed on: 2014-09-19.

Nielsen S , Hillhouse M , Thomas C. A comparison of buprenorphine taper outcomes between prescription opioid and heroin users. J Addict Med . 2013; 7(1): 33-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222095 Accessed on: 2015-05-14.

Nielsen S, Dietze P, Lee N, Dunlop A, Taylor D. Concurrent buprenorphine and benzodiazepines use and self-reported opioid toxicity in opioid substitution treatment. Addiction. 2007; 102(4): 616-22. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17286641 Accessed on: 2014-02-07.

Nielsen S, Hillhouse M, Thomas C, Hasson A, Ling W. A Comparison of Buprenorphine Taper Outcomes Between Prescription Opioid and Heroin Users. J Addict Med. 2013; 7: 33-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222095 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

NIH. National Trends. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2014. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/nationwide-trends Accessed on: 2015-05-07.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction. SAMHSA. 2012. Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA09-4443/SMA09-4443.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

Oreskovich MR, Saxon AJ, Ellis ML, Malte CA, Reoux JP, Knox PC. A double-blind, double-dummy, randomized, prospective pilot study of the partial mu opiate agonist, buprenorphine, for acute detoxification from heroin. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005; 77(1): 71-9. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15607843 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Orexo US Inc. Zubsolv prescribing information. Zubsolv. 2013. Available at: https://www.zubsolv.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ZubsolvFullPrescribingInformation.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-02.

O’Connor AB, Collett A, Alto WA, O’Brien LM. Breastfeeding rates and the relationship between breastfeeding and neonatal abstinence syndrome in women maintained on buprenorphine during pregnancy . Journal of Midwifery Women’s Health. 2013; 58(4): 383-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23931660 Accessed on: 2014-06-18.

Pade PA, Cardon KE, Hoffman RM, Geppert CM. Prescription opioid abuse, chronic pain, and primary care: a Co-occurring Disorders Clinic in the chronic disease model. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2012; 43(4): 446-50. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22980449 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Pajusco B, Chiamulera C, Quaglio G, Moro L, Casari R, Amen G, Faccini M, Lugoboni F. Tobacco Addiction and Smoking Status in Heroin Addicts under Methadone vs. Buprenorphine Therapy. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2012; 9(3): 932–942. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367288/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Pani PP, Vacca R, Troqu E, Amato L, Davoli M. Pharmacological treatment for depression during opioid agonist treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010; 8(9): CD008373. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008373.pub2/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Passik S. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2006; 20(2): 5-13. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702131 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Patrick, D. Dual diagnosis: substance-related and psychiatric disorders. The Nursing Clinics of North America. 2003; 38: 67-73.

Paulozzi L, Baldwin G. CDC Grand Rounds: Prescription Drug Overdoses — a U.S. Epidemic. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2012; 61(01): 10-13. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6101a3.htm Accessed on: 2014-01-17.

PCSS. Vivitrol: How important is this piece of the treatment puzzle?. Providers’ Clinical Support System Monthly Update. 2015; September: . Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/September-2015-PCSS-Monthly-Update.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

PCSS. XR-Naltrexone: A step-by-step guide. Provider’s Clinical Support System for Medicated Assisted Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://custom.cvent.com/10D3BAE39269457884C1D96DE1DF8D8D/files/b8f05ba83cfe4b859a8f5f72602878f0.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-15.

Perneger TV, Klag MJ, Whelton PK. Recreational drug use: a neglected risk factor for end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 38(1): 49-56. Available at: http://www.ajkd.org/article/S0272-6386(01)33204-3/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Pickett M, Rogers PD, Cavanaugh RM Jr. Screening for alcohol, tobacco, and drug use in children and adolescents. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Potter JS, Marino En, Hillhouse MP. Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone maintenance treatment outcomes for opioid analgesic, heroin, and combined users: findings from starting treatment with agonist replacement therapies (START). J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2013; 74(4): 605-13. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23739025 Accessed on: 2015-05-05.

Prochaska JJ, Delucchi K, Hall SM. A meta-analysis of smoking cessation interventions with inpiduals in substance abuse treatment or recovery. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004; 72(6): 1144-56. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15612860 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Purdue . Butrans transdermal system . Butrans.com. 2015. Available at: https://www.butrans.com/hcpportal/f?p=BUTRANSRX:HOME:0::::: Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

Purdue Pharma. Butrans™ CIII (buprenorphine) Transdermal System. Butrans Website. 2010. Available at: http://www.butrans.com/

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc. Buprenex injectable – RX only – Schedule III . NAABT. 2007. Available at: http://www.naabt.org/documents/buprenex_PI.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc. SUBOXONE (buprenorphine hydrochloride, naloxone hydrochloride) film, soluble [Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc] . DailyMed. 2014; April: . Available at: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=8a5edcf9-828c-4f97-b671-268ab13a8ecd Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc. Suboxone Prescribing Information. Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals. 2014. Available at: http://www.suboxone.com/content/pdfs/prescribing-information.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-09.

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc.. SUBOXONE® (Sub-OX-own) (buprenorphine and naloxone) Sublingual Film (CIII) . MEDICATION GUIDE. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafetyinformationforpatientsandproviders/ucm227949.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-22.

Rehab Center. Rehab Center. 2013. Available at: http://www.rehabcenter.net/wp-content/themes/rehab-center/pdfs/how-to-use-a-naloxone-overdose-prevention-kit-infographic.pdf Accessed on: 2017-01-31.

Reid MS, Mickalian JD, Delucchi KL, Hall SM, Berger SP. An acute dose of nicotine enhances cue-induced cocaine craving. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1998; 49(2): 95-104. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/9543646/?i=2&from=/19375250/related Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Reid MS, Selzer J, Rotrosen J. Smoking Cessation treatment at Substance Abuse Rehabilitation Programs. Northeast ATTC Newsletter. 2006; 5(2): 2-5. Available at: http://ctndisseminationlibrary.org/PDF/156.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Renner J (Chair), Saxon A, Levounis P. Buprenorphine Update and Evolving Standards of Care. IPS: The Mental Health Services Conference, New York City. 2015; Oct 8-11: . Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Meetings/IPS-TheMentalHealthServicesConference/IPS-Program-Guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-15.

Renner J, Lavounis P. Handbook of Office-Based Buprenorphine Treatment of Opioid Dependence. American Psychiatric Publishing, Arlington VA. 2011. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Office-based-Buprenorphine-Treatment-Dependence/dp/1585623695 Accessed on: 2013-12-11.

Reuter N. Personal Communication via e-mail re: Buprenorphine Waivered Physicians. E-mail. 2011. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472%2814%2900147-0/fulltext Accessed on: 2011-04-08.

RL Hubbard , SG Craddock, J Anderson. Overview of 5-year followup outcomes in the drug abuse treatment outcome studies (DATOS). Institute for Community-Based Research, National Development and Research Institutes, Inc.. 2003. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472(03)00130-2/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Romano G, Barbera N, Spadaro G, Valenti V. Determination of drugs of abuse in hair: evaluation of external heroin contamination and risk of false positives. Forensic Sci Int. 2003; 131(2-3): 98-102. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03790738 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Rondinelli AJ, Ouellet LJ, Strathdee SA, Latka MH, Hudson SM, Garfein RS. Young adult injection drug users in the United States continue to practice HIV risk behaviors. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 104(1-2): 167-74. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19559543 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Rosenthal RN, Lofwall MR, Kim S, et al. Effect of buprenorphine implants on illicit opioid use among abstinent adults with opioid dependence treated with sublingual buprenorphine. A randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016; 316: 282-290. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2533504Accessed on: 2016-07-25.

Roxane Laboratories Inc. Buprenorphine Prescribing Information. Roxane Laboratories . 2012. Available at: http://bidocs.boehringer-ingelheim.com/BIWebAccess/ViewServlet.ser?docBase=renetnt&folderPath=/Prescribing+Information/PIs/Roxane/Buprenorphine+HCl+Sublingual+Tabs/10004964_01+Buprenorphine+HCl+Sublingual+Tabs.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-09.

Roxane Laboratories. Buprenorphine and naloxone sublingual tablets: Full prescribing information. Dailymed.nlm.nih. 2016. Available at: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1bf8b35a-b769-465c-a2f8-099868dfcd2f Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

Rudd RA. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-12-20.

RX List. Suboxone. rxlist.com. 2014. Available at: http://www.rxlist.com/suboxone-drug/side-effects-interactions.htm Accessed on: 2014-02-07.

Saber-Tehrani AS, Bruce RD, Altice FL. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions and adverse consequences between psychotropic medications and pharmacotherapy for the treatment of opioid dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011; 37(1): 1-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21247284 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Salsitz EA, Wunsch MJ. PCSS-B Guidance on Drug Enforcement Administration Requirements for Prescribers and Dispensers of Buprenorphine and Buprenorphine/Naloxone. American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry. 2010; January 25: . Available at: https://www.naabt.org/documents/PCSS_All-Guidance-06022010.pdf Accessed on: 2013-12-10.

SAMHSA Press Office. Sharp rise in buprenorphine-related emergency department visits from 2005 to 2010. SAMHSA Bulletin. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/201301290645 Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

SAMHSA. An Introduction to Extended-Release Injectable Naltrexone for the Treatment of People With Opioid Dependence. SAMHSA Advisory. 2012; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 12-4682: 1-8. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA12-4682/SMA12-4682.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-14.

SAMHSA. Clinical Drug Testing in Primary Care. SAMHSA Website. 2012. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA12-4668/SMA12-4668.pdfAccessed on: 2015-12-03.

SAMHSA. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. TIP 40. SAMHSA/CSAT. Treatment Improvement Protocols. 2004; TIP 40: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2016-10-25.

SAMHSA. Federal Guidelines For Opioid Treatment Programs. HHS Publication No. (SMA) PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP. 2015. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP/PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-07.

SAMHSA. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. https://store.samhsa.gov. 2017; Pub id: SMA17-5044: Series: NSDUH. Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Key-Substance-Use-and-Mental-Health-Indicators-in-the-United-States-/SMA17-5044 Accessed on: 2018-04-06.

SAMHSA. Medication and Counseling Treatment. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/15: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. Methadone. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/2015: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/methadone Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-31.

SAMHSA. Number of DATA Certified Physicians. SAMHSA Website. 2015. Available at: http://buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/ Accessed on: 2015-04-09.

SAMHSA. Opioid Treatment Program Directory. Medical-Assisted Treatment for Substance Use Disorders. 2011. Available at: http://dpt2.samhsa.gov/treatment/directory.aspx Accessed on: 2011-04-14.

SAMHSA. Physician and Program Data. SAMHSA Medication Assisted Treatment. 2018. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/programs-campaigns/medication-assisted-treatment/physician-program-data Accessed on: 2018-04-16.

SAMHSA. Protracted withdrawal. Substance Abuse Treatment Advisory. 2010; 9: 1. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/product/Protracted-Withdrawal/SMA10-4554 Accessed on: 2014-09-10.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresults2012/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-30.

SAMHSA. SAMHSA Bulletin – Sharp rise in buprenorphine-related emergency department visits from 2005 to 2010. samhsa.gov. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/201301290645 Accessed on: 2013-12-06.

SAMHSA. Substance Abuse Confidentiality Regulations. SAMHSA. 2015. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/about-us/who-we-are/laws-regulations/confidentiality-regulations-faqs Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

SAMHSA. Substance Use Disorders. SAMHSA website. 2014. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/treatment/substance-use-disorders Accessed on: 2015-04-22.

Sansone RA, Whitecar P, Wiederman MW. The prevalence of borderline personality among buprenorphine patients. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2008; 38(2): 217-26. Available at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23191355_The_prevalence_of_borderline_personality_among_buprenorphine_patients Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Savage SD, Kirsh KL, Passik, SD. Challenges in using opioids to treat pain in persons with substance use disorders. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18497713 Accessed on: 2011-04-15.

Saxon AJ, Ling W, Hillhouse M, et al. Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone effects on laboratory indices of liver health: A randomized trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 128: 71-76. Available at: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F22921476&ei=3iITVPblKsnmyATAy4HABw&usg=AFQjCNEwLOvDgy4ZcuCZP2_4dOtRMO0aVw&bvm=bv.75097201,d.aWw Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Schoener EP, Hopper JA, Pierre JD. Injection drug use in North America. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002; 16(3): 535-551. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371114 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Seal KH, Shi Y , Cohen G. Association of Mental Health Disorders With Prescription Opioids and High-Risk Opioid Use in US Veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. JAMA. 2012; 307: 940-947. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1105046 Accessed on: 2015-04-22.

Sees KL, Clark HW. When to begin smoking cessation in substance abusers. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1993; 10(2): 189-95. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8510193 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Senay EC. Opioids: methadone maintenance. In: Galanter M, Kleber HD, eds. Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. 1999.

Shoptaw S, Rotheram-Fuller E, Yang X, Frosch D, Nahom D, Jarvik ME, Rawson RA, Ling W. Smoking cessation in methadone maintenance. Addiction. 2002; 97(10): 1317-28. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12359036 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2010; 170(13): 1155-60. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Sontag D. Addiction Treatment With a Dark Side. New York Times. 2013. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/health/in-demand-in-clinics-and-on-the-street-bupe-can-be-savior-or-menace.html?smid=pl-share Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Soyka M. Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone intoxication in children — How strong is the risk?. Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 2013; 6(1): 63-70. Available at: http://www.eurekaselect.com/111928/article?trendmd-shared=0 Accessed on: 2015-11-17.

Sparling, PB et al. Exercise activates the endocannibinoid system. NeuroReport. 2003; 14(17): 2209-2211. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625449 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Stanhope TJ, Gill LA, Rose C. Chronic opioid use during pregnancy: maternal and fetal implications. Clinics in Perinatology. 2013; 40(3): 337-50. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23972743 Accessed on: 2014-06-18.

Stanton A, Mcleod C, Luckey B, Kissin W, Sonnefeld LJ. SAMHSA/CSAT Evaluation of the Buprenorphine Waiver Program. Paper presented at: 37th Annual Medical- Scientific Conference of the American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2006. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/programs_campaigns/medication_assisted/evaluation-buprenorphine-waiver-program-study-overview.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews . 2006; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437445 Accessed on: 2015-09-01.

Stephenson DK, SAM Committee on Treatment of Opioid Dependence. Draft Guidelines for Physicians Working in California Opioid Treatment Programs. California Society of Addiction Medicine. 2008. Available at: http://www.csam-asam.org/guideline-physicians-working-california-opioid-treatment-programs Accessed on: 2013-12-18.

Sterling S, Chi F, Hinman A. Integrating Care for People With Co­-Occurring Alcohol and Other Drug, Medical, and Mental Health Conditions . Alcohol Research & Health. 2011; 33(4): 338-349. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh334/338-349.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-07.

Stewart DG, Brown SA. Withdrawal and dependency symptoms among adolescent alcohol and drug abusers. Addiction. 1995; 90(5): 627-635. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7795499 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Stine SM, Greenwald MK, Kosten TR. Pharmacologic interventions for opioid addiction. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Strain EC, Moody DE, Stoller KE, Walsh SL, Bigelow GE. Relative bioavailability of different buprenorphine formulations under chronic dosing conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2004; 74(1): 37-43. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072805 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Strain EC. Assessment and treatment of comorbid psychiatric disorders in opioid-dependent patients. Clin J Pain. 2002; 18(4 Suppl): S14-27.

Subramaniam G, Levy S. PCSS-MAT Guidance: Treatment of opioid dependent adolescents and young adults using sublingual buprenorphine. Physicians’ Clinical Support System for Medication Assisted Treatment (PCSS-MAT). 2010. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentofOpioidDependantAdolescent-buprenorphine.SubramaniamLevy1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Subramaniam GA, Fishman MJ, Woody G. Treatment of opioid-dependent adolescents and young adults with buprenorphine. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2009; 11(5): 360-3. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19785976 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT). A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). About Buprenorphine Therapy. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). 2011. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/buprenorphine

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Tobacco Use Cessation During Substance Abuse Treatment Counseling. SAMHSA Apsory. 2011; 10(2): 1-8. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA11-4636CLIN/SMA11-4636CLIN.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Use of Buprenorphine in the Pharmacologic Management of Opioid Dependence: A Curriculum for Physicians. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2001. Available at: http://www.uiphp.org.ua/media/1488 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Confidentiality of Patient Records for Alcohol and Other Drug Treatment. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Technical Assistance Publication Series, No. 13. 1994a. Available at: http://adaiclearinghouse.org/downloads/TAP-13-Confidentiality-of-Patient-Records-for-Alcohol-and-Other-Drug-Treatment-103.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Intensive Outpatient Treatment for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Technical Improvement Protocol Series, No. 8. 1993b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22514865 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse: Opportunities for Coordination. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Technical Assistance Publication Series, No. 11. 1994b. Available at: https://secure.addictioncounselorce.com/articles/102015/TAP-11-Treatment-for-Alcohol-and-Other-Drug-Abuse-Opportunities-for-Coordination-101-1-.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. New federal regulations issued to improve methadone treatment. NIH. 2001. Available at: http://methadone.org/library/samhsa_pr_2001_new_regulations.html

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-48. 2014; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-03-12.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment of Adolescents With Substance Use Disorders. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 32. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. USDHHS Publication (SMA) 99-3283. 1999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64350/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Use of buprenorphine in the pharmacologic management of opioid dependence: a curriculum for physicians. NIH. 2001b. Available at: http://www.buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/Buprenorphine_Curriculum.pdf

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Aministration. Opioid Overdose Toolkit. SAMHSA. . Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA13-4742/Overdose_Toolkit_2014_Jan.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J, et al. Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised clinical institute withdrawal assessment for alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict. 1989; 84(11): 1353-7. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2597811 Accessed on: 2017-03-16.

Sullivan MA, Covey LS. Current perspectives on smoking cessation among substance abusers. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2002; 4(5): 388-396. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12230968 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Sullivan, L, Fiellin, D. Narrative Review: Buprenorphine for Opioid-Dependent Patients in Office Practice. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2008; 148(9): 662-670. Available at: http://www.intnsa.org/resources/publications/position_june_2012.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Sullivan, M, Martin J (original author). New Information on Buprenorphine Treatment During Pregnancy. Personal Communication. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/PCSS-MATGuidancePregnancy-and-Buprenorphine.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-14.

Szabo L. Addiction treatment hard to find, even as overdose deaths soar . USA Today . 2015. Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/05/24/addiction-treatment-shortage/27181773 Accessed on: 2015-05-28.

Tamm L, Trello-Rishel K, Riggs P, Nakonezny P, Acosta M, Bailey G, Winhusen T. Predictors of treatment response in adolescents with comorbid substance use disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Subst Abuse Treat. 2013; 44(2): 224-30. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3499678/Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Taylor FB, Martin P, Thompson C, et al. Prazosin effects on objective sleep measures and clinical symptoms in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder: A placebo-controlled study. Biological Psychiatry. 2008; 63(6): 629-32. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17868655 Accessed on: 2015-09-01.

Thomas CP, Fullerton CA, Kim M, Montejano L, Lyman DR, Dougherty RH, Daniels AS, Ghose SS, Delphin-Rittmon ME. Medication-assisted treatment with buprenorphine: assessing the evidence. Psychiatr Serv. 2014; 65(2): 158-70. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24247147 Accessed on: 2014-06-18.

Titan Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Braeburn Pharmaceuticals . Titan Pharmaceuticals and Braeburn Pharmaceuticals Announce FDA Advisory Committee Recommends Approval of Probuphine, First 6-Month Implant to Treat Opioid Addiction. (From their website).. Titan Pharmaceuticals and Braeburn Pharmaceuticals Announce FDA Advisory Committee Recommends Approval of Probuphine, First 6-Month Implant to Treat Opioid Addiction . 2016. Available at: http://www.titanpharm.com/news/press-releases/detail/146/titan-pharmaceuticals-and-braeburn-pharmaceuticals-announce Accessed on: 2016-02-17.

Tolia VN, Patrick SW, Bennett MM, et al. Increasing incidence of the neonatal abstinence syndrome in U.S. Neonatal ICUs. NEJM. 2015; 372: 2118-2126. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1500439 Accessed on: 2018-04-06.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis.html Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

TransMed. CLIA Screen In-Vitro (CSI) 12-Panel Drug Test Screening Cup CLIA Waived. TransMed Drug Testing & Laboratory Supplies. . Available at: http://www.transmedco.com/CLIA/CSI-12.html Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

Trémeau F, Darreye A, Staner L, Corrêa H, Weibel H, Khidichian F, Macher JP. Suicidality in opioid-dependent subjects. Am J Addict. 2008; 17(3): 187-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18463995 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Tzschentke TM. Behavioral pharmacology of buprenorphine, with a focus on preclinical models of reward and addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002; 161(1): 1-16. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11967625 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2012 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Section 12. Labor Force, Employment, and Earnings. http://www.census.gov. 2012. Available at: http://www.census.gov/library/publications/2011/compendia/statab/131ed/labor-force-employment-earnings.html Accessed on: 2015-10-15.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Addressing prescription drug abuse in the United States . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/pdf/hhs_prescription_drug_abuse_report_09.2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Office of persion Control. National Forensic Laboratory Information System: Year 2009 Annual Report. National Forensic Library Information System Annual Report. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/nflis/2009annual_rpt.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-14.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force banner U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for Illicit Drug Use . U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008; January: . Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-19.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final recommendation statement – Depression in adults: Screening. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

UMBC. SBIRT: Screen for Substance Use – Positive Screen. UMBC. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-A4Wea3SaE Accessed on: 2016-11-15.

UMBCtube. SBIRT: Screen for Substance Use – Negative Screen. YouTube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5LjhAJMTwmI Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Congress. Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. United States Congress. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/docs/dwp_buprenorphine.htm Accessed on: 2011-06-29.

US Department of Justice. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations: PART 1306 — PRESCRIPTIONS. US Department of Justice – Office of persion Control. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1306/1306_05.htm Accessed on: 2015-05-04.

US Department of Justice. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations: PART 1311 —REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRONIC ORDERS AND PRESCRIPTIONS. US Department of Justice – Office of persion Control. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1311/subpart_c100.htm Accessed on: 2015-05-04.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guidelines. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/ Accessed on: 2016-11-15.

Verheul R. Co-morbidity of personality disorders in inpiduals with substance use disorders. Eur Psychiatry. 2001; 16(5): 274-282. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11514129 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Volkow N. NIDA-supported science leads to first FDA-approved medication for opioid withdrawal . NIDA. 2018. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2018/05/nida-supported-science-leads-to-first-fda-approved-medication-opioid-withdrawal Accessed on: 2018-05-23.

Waknine Y. FDA Approves 7-Day Buprenorphine Pain Patch. Medscape Today. 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/724626 Accessed on: 2011-07-13.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm391465.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Walsh SL. Clinically Relevant Pharmacology of Buprenorphine. UK HealthCare CECentral. 2009. Available at: http://www.cecentral.com/ Accessed on: 2011-07-18.

Wang J, Christo PJ. The influence of prescription monitoring programs on chronic pain management. Pain Physician. 2009; 12: 507-515. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19461820 Accessed on: 2014-05-24.

Warden D, Riggs P, Min S, Mikulich-Gilbertson S, Tamm L, Trello-Rishel K, Winhusen T. Major depression and treatment response in adolescents with ADHD and substance use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012; 120(1-3): 214-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3245790/ Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Warner M , Hedegaard H , Chen LH. Trends in drug-poisoning deaths involving opioid analgesics and heroin: United States, 1999-2012. NCHS health e-stats. 2014. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/drug_poisoning/drug_poisoning_deaths_1999-2012.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief. 2009; NCHS Data Brief, no. 22: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-15.

Wartenberg A. Management of Buprenorphine Side Effects. American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/home Accessed on: 2013-12-12.

Weiss RD, Potter JS, Fiellin DA, Byrne M, Connery HS, Dickinson W, Gardin J, Griffin ML, Gourevitch MN, Haller DL, Hasson HL, Huang Z, Jacobs P, Kosinski AS, Lindblad R, McCance-Katz EF, Provost SE, Selzer J, Somoza EC, Sonne SC, Ling W. Adjunctive Counseling During Brief and Extended Buprenorphine-Naloxone Treatment for Prescription Opioid Dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012; 68(12): 1238-1246. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3470422/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Weiss RD, Potter JS, Griffin ML, Provost SE, Fitzmaurice GM, McDermott KA, Srisarajivakul EN, Dodd DR, Dreifuss JA, McHugh RK, Carroll KM. Long-term outcomes from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25818060 Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Wish ED, Artigiani D, Billing A, Hauser W, et al. The emerging buprenorphine epidemic in the United States. J Addict Dis. 2012; 31(1): 3-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22356664 Accessed on: 2012-07-19.

Woody G, Poole S, Subramaniam G, et al. Extended vs short-term buprenorphine-naloxone for treatment of opioid-addicted youth: a randomized trail. AMA. 2008; 300(17): 2003-11. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610690/ Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Wu LT, Woody GE, Yang C, Blazer DG. Subtypes of nonmedical opioid users: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 112: 69–80. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2967592/ Accessed on: 2015-04-15.

Xi ZX, Stein EA. GABAergic mechanisms of opiate reinforcement. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002; 37(5): 485-494. Available at: http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/content/37/5/485 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Yokell MA, Zaller ND, Green TC, Rich JD. Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone persion, misuse, and illicit use: an international review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2011; 4: 28-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154701/ Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Zacny J, Bigelow G, Compton P, Foley K, Iguchi M, Sannerud C. College on Problems of Drug Dependence task force on prescription opioid non-medical use and abuse: position statement. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 69(3): 215-232. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12633908 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Zubkoff L, Shiner B, Watts BV. Staff Perceptions of Substance Use Disorder Treatment in VA Primary Care–Mental Health Integrated Clinics. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2016; 70: 44-49. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2016.07.011 Accessed on: 2016-12-02.

Öhlin L, Fridell M, Nyhlén A. Buprenorphine maintenance program with contracted work/education and low tolerance for non-prescribed drug use: a cohort study of outcome for women and men after seven years. BMC Psychiatry. 2015; 15:56 (ISSN: 1471-244X). 2015; 15(56): ISSN: 1471-244X. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244X/15/56 Accessed on: 2015-09-17.

Activity Credit: Obtaining credit for participation in this activity requires that you complete the pre-assessments, work through the modules (including all in-module interactive activities), complete the post-assessments with a 70% score on the post-test, and then request credit. At the end of the activity, you will be instructed on how to print out a certificate for your records.

Time Requirement: Keep track of the amount of time it takes you to complete this activity. You will be required to spend a set amount of time in order to claim credit. You should claim credit only for the time actually spent in the activity.

Technical Requirement: To participate in this activity, you will need a computer, an Internet connection, and a Web browser. This activity requires Chrome, Firefox, and IE7 or higher.

21 USC § 812 . Schedules of controlled substances. www.law.cornell.edu/uscode. 2012. Available at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/812#b_3 Accessed on: 2013-12-04.

Actavis Elizabeth LLC. Buprenorphine HCl and naloxone HCl prescribing information. Actavis. 2013. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=110562 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Addiction Treatment Forum. History of Buprenorphine. Addiction Treatment Forum Website. 2013. Available at: http://atforum.com/2013/02/history-of-buprenorphine/ Accessed on: 2015-04-09.

Agency Medical Director’s Group. Interagency guideline on opioid dosing for chronic non-cancer pain. http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/. . Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/files/opioidgdline.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

Al-Tayyib A, Rice E, Rhoades H, Riggs P. Association between prescription drug misuse and injection among runaway homeless youth. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 134: 406-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24300900 Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Alford D, LaBelle C, Richardson J, O’Connell J, Hohl C, Cheng D, Samet J. Treating Homeless Opioid Dependent Patients with Buprenorphine in an Office-Based Setting. Society of General Internal Medicine. 2007; 22: 171-176. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1824722/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892816/

Alford DP, Labelle CT, Kretsch N, Bergeron A, Winter M, Botticelli M, Samet JH. Collaborative care of opioid-addicted patients in primary care using buprenorphine: five-year experience. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2011; 171(5): 425-31. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3059544/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Alho H, Sinclair D, Vuori E, Holopainen A. Abuse liability of buprenorphine-naloxone tablets in untreated IV drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 88(1): 75-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055191 Accessed on: 2013-12-09.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications.. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/opioid-safe-storage-and-disposal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-07.

Amass L, Ling W, Freese TE, et al. Bringing buprenorphine-naloxone detoxification to community treatment providers: the NIDA Clinical Trials Network field experience. Am J Addict. 2004; 13 Suppl 1: S42-66. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1255908/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/5/1078.abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013; 5th ed.: . Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). Drug Testing As A Component Of Addiction Treatment and Monitoring Programs and in Other Clinical Settings. ASAM.org. 2010. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2011/12/15/drug-testing-as-a-component-of-addiction-treatment-and-monitoring-programs-and-in-other-clinical-settings Accessed on: 2013-12-31.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Arfken CL, Johanson CE, di Menza S, Schuster CR. Expanding treatment capacity for opioid dependence with office-based treatment with buprenorphine: National surveys of physicians. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2010; 39(2): 96-104. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598829 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

ASAM . Advancing access to addiction medications . Advancing access to addiction medications: Implications for opioid addiction treatment . 2013. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/aaam_implications-for-opioid-addiction-treatment_final Accessed on: 2015-05-29.

ASAM Board of Directors. ASAM Public Policy Statement: Definition of Addiction. American Society of Addiction Medicine Website. 2011. Available at: http://www.asam.org/for-the-public/definition-of-addiction Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

ASAM. Summary of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act. ASAM Advocacy. 2016. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/issues/opioids/summary-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act Accessed on: 2016-09-19.

Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO). Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome: How States Can Help Advance the Knowledge Base for Primary Prevention and Best Practices of Care. ASTHO. 2014. Available at: http://www.astho.org/Prevention/NAS-Neonatal-Abstinence-Report/ Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://www.talkingalcohol.com/files/pdfs/WHO_audit.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-21.

Baca CT, Yahne CE. Smoking cessation during substance abuse treatment: what you need to know. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009; 36(2): 205-19. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18715746 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Back SE , Payne RL , Simpson AN . Gender and prescription opioids: findings from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Addict Behav. 2010; 35: 1001-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598809 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Belbuca. Belbuca HPC important safety information. www.belbuca.com. 2015. Available at: https://www.belbuca.com/pdf/Belbuca%20HCP%20ISI%20BL-03965.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

BioDelivery Sciences International . Bunavail prescribing information . BDSI. 2014. Available at: http://www.bdsi.com/siteres.aspx?resid=5a738443-a797-41cd-a39a-a8deb2a4a585 Accessed on: 2014-10-06.

BioDelivery Sciences International. Bunavail package insert. Highlights of prescribing information. BiodeliverySciences.com. 2014; 6/2014: 1-27. Available at: http://www.bdsi.com/siteres.aspx?resid=5a738443-a797-41cd-a39a-a8deb2a4a585 Accessed on: 2015-03-03.

Biodelivery sciences receives FDA approval for BunavailTM (buprenorphine and naloxone) buccal film for the maintenance of treatment of opioid dependence. Biodelivery Sciences Website. 2014; September 4: . Available at: http://bdsi.investorroom.com/2014-06-06-BioDelivery-Sciences-Receives-FDA-Approval-for-BUNAVAIL-buprenorphine-and-naloxone-Buccal-Film-for-the-Maintenance-Treatment-of-Opioid-Dependence Accessed on: 2014-09-11.

Birnbaum HG , White AG, Schiller M . Societal costs of prescription opioid abuse, dependence, and misuse in the United States.. Pain Med . 2011; 4: 657-67. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/advocacy/societal-costs-of-prescription-opioid-abuse-dependence-and-misuse-in-the-united-states.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-07.

Bliesener N, Albrecht S, Schwager A, et al.. Plasma testosterone and sexual function in men receiving buprenorphine maintenance for opioid dependence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90(1): 203. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15483091 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Blow FC. Special issues in treatment: old adults. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, May-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, 3rd ed. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Blueshift Research. Camurus and Inpior Set to Significantly Sway the Opioid Abuse Treatment Market . Blueshift Research Report. 2017. Accessed on: 2017-03-21.

BMJ. Benzodiazepine overdose. BMJ Best Practice, BMJ Publishing Group Limited. 2017. Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/343/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed on: 2017-04-18.

Borg L, Kreek MJ. The pharmacology of opioids. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine. 3rd ed. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003; 3: . Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Brady KT, Myrick H, Sonne S. Comorbid addiction and affective disorders. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Second Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 1998. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851027/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Brands B, Blake J, Sproule B, et al. Prescription opioid abuse in patients presenting for methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; 73(2): 199-207. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14725960 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27: 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Bruce RD. Methadone as HIV prevention: high volume methadone sites to decrease HIV incidence rates in resource limited settings. International Journal of Drug Policy . 2010; 21: 122-124. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19931444 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Burch, K. Injectable Buprenorphine Moves Closer To FDA Approval. theFix. 2017; 1/27/`7: . Available at: https://www.thefix.com/injectable-buprenorphine-moves-closer-fda-approval Accessed on: 2017-03-21.

CADCA. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act (CARA). CADCA.org. 2016. Available at: http://www.cadca.org/comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-caraAccessed on: 2016-09-19.

Campbell AN, Nunes EV, Matthews AG, et al. Internet-delivered treatment for substance abuse: a multisite randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171: 683-690. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4079279/ Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Casadonte PP. PCSS Guidance: Buprenorphine Induction. Physician Clinical Support System Website. 2009. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceBuprenorphineInduction.Casadonte.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

CDC. Prescription Drug Overdose Data. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control . 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/overdose.html Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

CDC. Understanding the epidemic. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, pision of Unintentional Injury Prevention. 2017. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/epidemic/index.html Accessed on: 2018-04-10.

CDC. Vital Signs: Overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 1999-2008. MMWR. 2011; 60(43): 1487-92. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6043a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/. 2016; HHS Publication No. SMA 16-4984, NSDUH Series H-51: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015.pdf Accessed on: 2017-07-14.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Opioids drive continued increase in drug overdose deaths [Press Release]. cdc.gov. 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0220_drug_overdose_deaths.html Accessed on: 2014-01-17.

Chen MC, Beebe K. A randomized trial of Probuphine implants in adults stabilized on sublingual buprenorphine. American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) Annual Meeting. 2016. Available at: https://braeburnpharmaceuticals.com/probuphine-phase-iii-data-presented-at-american-society-of-addiction-medicine-asam-annual-meeting/

Chiang CN, Hawks RL. Pharmacokinetics of the combination tablet of buprenorphine and naloxone. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(suppl 2): S39-S47.

Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. J of Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187889 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Christo PJ, Manchikanti L, Ruan X, Bottros M, Hansen H, Solanki DR, Jordan AE, Colson J. Urine Drug Testing In Chronic Pain. Pain Physician . 2011; 14: 123-143. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412368 Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Chychula NM, Sciamanna C. Help substance abusers attain and sustain abstinence. Nurse Pract. 2002; 27(11): 30-47. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12444364 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Cicero JT, Dart RC, Inciardi JA, Woody GE, Schnoll S, Munoz A. The Development of a Comprehensive Risk-Management Program for Prescription Opioid Analgesics: Researched Abuse, persion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(2): 157-169. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305687 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Cicero TJ, Surratt HL, Inciardi J. Use and misuse of buprenorphine in the management of opioid addiction. J Opioid Manag. 2007; 3(6): 302-8. Available at: http://www.naddi.org/aws/NADDI/asset_manager/get_file/2740 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Cirone S. Brief Intervention: Adolescent with Prescription Opioid Use Disorder. YouTube. 2013. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAKRz9TiJUEAccessed on: 2015-04-27.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Assessing pain with PQRSTU. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/cKR27q9g-_o Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Conigliaro J, Reyes CD, Parran TV, Schulz JE. Principles of screening and early intervention. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Czerkes M. Buprenorphine Versus Methadone Treatment for Opiate Addiction in Pregnancy: An Evaluation of Neonatal Outcomes. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Annual Clinical Meeting. 2010.

Dahan A, Yassen A, Romberg R, et al. Buprenorphine induces ceiling in respiratory depression but not in analgesia. Br J Anaesth. 2006; 96(5): 627-32. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16547090 Accessed on: 2014-09-11.

Daitch D, Daitch J, Novinson D, et al. Conversion from high-dose full-opioid agonists to sublingual buprenorphine reduces pain scores and improves quality of life for chronic pain patients. . Pain Med. 2014; 15(12): 2087-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25220043 Accessed on: 2016-06-04.

Darke S, Ross J. Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods. Addiction. 2002; 97(11): 1383-1394.

Darnell B, Stieg RL. Boots on the Ground in Opioid Tapering: A Low-Cost, Medically Supervised Psychobehavioral Prescription Opioid Taper Program for Community-Dwelling Patients. American Academy of Pain Medicine 2016 Annual Meeting. 2016. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/2016posters/abstract-163/Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

Dart R. Evaluation of ADFs Using RADARS System Data. RADARS System. 2011. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/RADARS(R)%20System_2011%20Annual%20Meeting%20Summary.pdf Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

Dart RC. Opioid Abuse, Misuse, and persion: Strategies for Prevention. Researched Abuse, persion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). American Academy of Pain Medicine Meeting. 2009. Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Dasgupta N. RADARS System Subutex & Suboxone: How Much is Prescribed vs. Abuse/persion Reports. SAMHSA Meeting on Buprenorphine. 2010. Available at: http://docs.clinicaltools.com/pdf/Buppractice/HowMuchIsPrescribed.pdf Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

Davis MP. Twelve reasons for considering buprenorphine as a frontline analgesic in the management of pain. SupportiveOncology.net. 2012. Available at: http://xyane.com/upload/forum/201342423942.pdf Accessed on: 2016-06-02.

De Vries TJ, Shippenberg TS. Neural systems underlying opiate addiction. J Neurosci. 2002; 22(9): 3321-3325. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/9/3321.long Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Mandatory guidelines for federal workplace drug testing programs. Federal Register. 2008; 73(228): 71858-71907. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-11-25/html/E8-26726.htm Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Donaher PA, Welsh C. Managing opioid addiction with buprenorphine. American Family Physician. 2006; 73(9): 1573-8. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0501/p1573.html Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). Highlights of the 2011 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) Findings on Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. The Dawn Report. 2013; 127: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k13/DAWN127/sr127-DAWN-highlights.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Buprenorphine . Drug Enforcement Administration Office of persion Control. 2013. Available at: https://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/buprenorphine.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration, Justice. § 1301.75 Physical security controls for practitioners. DEA. 2005. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2009-title21-vol9/pdf/CFR-2009-title21-vol9-sec1301-76.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration. Code of Federal Regulations: Section 1304.03 Maintenance of records and inventories. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Office of persion Control. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1304/1304_04.htm Accessed on: 2011-07-03.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2011. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm

Drugs.com. Buprenorphine/Naloxone. Drugs.com. Copyright 1996-2017 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 8.01.. Revision Date: 2017-02-06, 10:16:30 AM. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/buprenorphine-naloxone Accessed on: 2017-02-22.

Drugs.com. Doxazosin. Drugs.com. Copyright 1996-2017 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 8.01.. Revision Date: 2015-11-16, 3:09:59 PM. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/doxazosin.html Accessed on: 2017-01-03.

Drugs.com. Naloxone. FDA Professional Drug Information. Copyright 2000-2015; Last updated Jan-Feb, 2015. Available at: http://www.drugs.com/pro/naloxone.html Accessed on: 2015-02-09.

Dunn KE, Sigmon SC, Strain EC, et al.. The association between outpatient buprenorphine detoxification duration and clinical treatment outcomes: a review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011; 119(1-2): 1-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21741781 Accessed on: 2014-10-03.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et. al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Durand F, Valla D. Assessment of prognosis of cirrhosis. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2008; 28(1): 110-122. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18293281 Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Russo JE, et al.. The role of opioid prescription in incident opioid abuse and dependence among inpiduals with chronic noncancer pain: the role of opioid prescription. Clin J Pain. 2014; 30(7): 557-64. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24281273 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Egan JE, Casadonte P, Gartenmann T, Martin J, McCance-Katz EF, Netherland J, Renner JA, Weiss L, Saxon AJ, Fiellin DA. The Physician Clinical Support System-Buprenorphine (PCSS-B): a novel project to expand/improve buprenorphine treatment. J Gen Intern Med. 2010; 25(9): 936-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917666/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Eggleston W, Clark KH, Marraffa JM. Loperamide abuse associated with cardiac dysrhythmia and death. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2016; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.047: . Available at: http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30052-X/fulltext Accessed on: 2016-05-04.

Erdemoglu AK, Koc R. Brief Pain Inventory score identifying and discriminating neuropathic and nociceptive pain.. Acta Neurol Scand. 2013; 128(5): 351-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23594114 Accessed on: 2016-04-12.

Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, Ayers A, Schuster J, Cilia A, Flaherty MT, Mandell T, Gordon AJ, Stein BD. Practice Guidance for Buprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Substance Abuse Journal. 2015; 36(2): 209-216. Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, et al. Practice Guidelines for Burprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Substance Abuse Journal. 2015; 36(2): . Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08897077.2015.1012613?redirect=1#.VgWAsMtVhBc Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Farney RJ, McDonald AM, Boyle KM, Snow GL, Nuttall RT, Coudreaut MF, Wander TJ, Walker JM. Sleep disordered breathing in patients receiving therapy with buprenorphine/naloxone. Eur Respir. 2013; 42: 394-403. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23100497 Accessed on: 2014-01-27.

FDA. CLIA – Clinical laboratory improvement amendments – currently waived analytes. FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfClia/analyteswaived.cfm Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

FDA. FDA announces enhanced warnings for immediate-release opioid pain medications related to risks of misuse, abuse, addiction, overdose and death. FDA News Release. March 22, 2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm491739.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

FDA. FDA announces safety labeling changes and postmarket study requirements for extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics. FDA Website. 2013. Available at: https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112130229/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm367726.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

FDA. FDA approves first buprenorphine implant for treatment of opioid dependence. FDA News & Events. 2016; May 26, 2016: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm503719.htm?source=govdelivery&utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery Accessed on: 2016-05-27.

FDA. FDA approves first once-monthly buprenorphine injection, a medication-assisted treatment option for opioid use disorder. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, News and Events. November 30, 2017. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm587312.htm?utm_campaign=FDA%20approves%20new%20medication-assisted%20treatment%20option%20for%20opioid%20use%20disorder&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua Accessed on: 2017-12-01.

FDA. FDA approves the first non-opioid treatment for management of opioid withdrawal symptoms in adults. U.S. FDA News Release. 2018. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm607884.htm Accessed on: 2018-05-20.

FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns about several safety issues with opioid pain medicines; requires label changes . FDA U.S. Food & Drug Administration. 3/22/2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm489676.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-24.

FDA. Medication Guide: Butrans™ CIII (buprenorphine) Transdermal System. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM220880.pdf

FDA. Medication Guide: Zubsolv Sublingual Tablet (CIII). FDA. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/UCM362203.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-23.

Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States. Model policy for the use of controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. 2013 updated, 2004. Available at: http://www.painpolicy.wisc.edu/sites/www.painpolicy.wisc.edu/files/FSMB_pain_policy_july2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Fiellin D. Treatment of acute pain in patients receiving buprenorphine/naloxone. Physician Clinical Support System (PCSS) Clinical Guidance. 2005. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentOfAcutePainInPatientsReceivingBup.Fiellin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-02.

Fiellin D. Treatment of Acute Pain in Patients Receiving Buprenorphine/Naloxone. Providers’ Clinical Support System. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentOfAcutePainInPatientsReceivingBup.Fiellin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Fiellin DA, Rosenheck RA, Kosten TR. Office-based treatment for opioid dependence: reaching new patient populations. Am J Psychiatry. 2001; 158(8): 1200-1204. Available at: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1200 Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Fiellin DA, Schottenfeld RS, Cutter CJ, et al. Primary care-based buprenorphine taper vs maintenance therapy for prescription opioid dependence: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2014; 174(12): 1947-1954. Available at: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1916910 Accessed on: 2016-03-02.

Finch JW, Kamien JB, Amass L. Two-year experience with buprenorphine-naloxone (Suboxone) for maintenance treatment of opioid dependence within a private practice setting.. Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2014; 1(2): 104-110. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21768942 Accessed on: 2016-03-02.

Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review. Pain Medicine. 2008; 9(4): 444-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Fishman MJ, Mee-Lee D, Shulman GD, et al. Supplement to the ASAM Patient Placement Criteriaon the Management of Alcohol Use Disorders. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Inc.. 2010. Available at: http://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

Fishman MJ, Wu LT, Woody GE. Buprenorphine for Prescription Opioid Addiction in a Patient With Depression and Alcohol Dependence . Am J Psychiatry. 2011; 168(7): 675–679. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178807/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Appropriate Use Checklist. btodrems.com. 2013. Available at: https://www.btodrems.com/Portal/Content%20Library/Appropriate%20Use%20Checklist.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Buprenorphine Drug Label. NDA 20-732, NDA 20-733. 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM191529.pdf

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Buprenorphine-containing Transmucosal products for Opioid Dependence (BTOD) Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS). Food and Drug Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM340914.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-07.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Medications Guide. btodrems.com. 2013. Available at: https://www.btodrems.com/SitePages/MedicationGuides.aspxAccessed on: 2013-10-09.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Physician Information: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions. NDA 20-732. 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM191532.pdf Accessed on: 2011-07-07.

Frenk SM, Porter KS , Paulozzi LJ . Prescription opioid analgesic use among adults: United States, 1999-2012. NCHS data brief, no 189. 2015; 189: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db189.htm#ref1 Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Gallagher C. What Waivered Physicans Need to Understand About DEA Requirements. PCSS-B Web Seminar . 2010. Available at: https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Practice/Professional-Topics/Addiction-Psychiatry/PCSMAT/Webinar-Slides-What-Waivered-Physicians-Need-to-Understand-About-DEA-Requirements.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-11.

Garra G, Singer AJ, Taira BR, et al. Validation of the Wong-Baker FACES pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Academic Emergency Medicine. 2010; 17: 50-54. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20003121 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Glasper A, Reed LJ, de Wet CJ, Gossop M, Bearn J. Induction of patients with moderately severe methadone dependence onto buprenorphine. Addiction Biology. 2005; 10(2): 149-155. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16191667 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Gourlay D, Heit H, Caplan Y. Urine Drug Testing in Primary Care: Dispelling the Myths & Designing Strategies. California Academy of Family Physicians. 2002. Available at: http://www.alaskaafp.org/udt.pdf Accessed on: 2005-03-15.

Gourlay D. Urine Drug Testing in Chronic Pain: A Patient Centered Approach (AMA) [webinar]. American Medical Association. 2013. Available at: https://pcss-o.org/event/urine-drug-testing-in-chronic-pain-a-patient-centered-approach/ Accessed on: 2013-12-31.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Caplan YH. Urine Drug Testing in Clinical Practice: The Art and Science of Patient Care. Johns Hopkins Medicine. 2012; 5: . Available at: http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/ama/downloads/udt5_Copy.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Gruber VA, McCance-Katz EF. Methadone, buprenorphine, and street drug interactions with antiretroviral medications.. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2010; 7(3): 152-60. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20532839 Accessed on: 2015-07-29.

Gudin JA, Mogali S, Jones JD. Risks, management, and monitoring of combination opioid, benzodiazepines, and/or alcohol use. Postgrad Med. 2013; 125(4): 115-130. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4057040/ Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Gunderson E. Models of Buprenorphine Induction. PCSSMAT Training. 2014. Available at: http://www.pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Buprenorphine-Induction-Online-Module.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

Guo AY, Ma JD, Best BM, Atayee RS. Urine specimen detection of concurrent nonprescribed medicinal and illicit drug use in patients prescribed buprenorphine.Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 2013; 37(9): 636-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24080973 Accessed on: 2014-01-06.

Gyarmathy VA, Neaigus A, Miller M, Friedman SR, Des Jarlais DC. Risk correlates of prevalent HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among noninjecting heroin users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002; 30(4): 448-456. Available at: http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1525-4135&volume=30&issue=4&spage=448 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Hagan H, Pouget ER, Des Jarlais DC. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Prevent Hepatitis C Virus Infection in People Who Inject Drugs. The Journal of Infectious Diseases . 2011; 204: 74-83. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21628661 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Hahn JA, Page-Shafer K, Lum PJ, Ochoa K, Moss AR. Hepatitis C virus infection and needle exchange use among young injection drug users in San Francisco. Hepatology. 2001; 34(1): 180-187. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11431749 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Hale, Viner. Trends in the prevalence of multiple substance use in adolescents in England, 1998-2009. J of Public Health, Oxford. 2013; 35(3): 367-74. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23528672 Accessed on: 2015-04-24.

Harned M, Sloan P. Safety concerns with long-term opioid use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016; PMID: 27070052: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27070052 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Hasin D, Liu X-H, Nunes E, McCloud S, Samet S, Endicott J. Effects of major depression on remission and relapse of substance dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002; 59: 375–380. Available at: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=206176 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Health and Human Services. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders Reporting Requirements. Federal Register. 2016; Doc. 2016-23277: . Available at: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/09/27/2016-23277/medication-assisted-treatment-for-opioid-use-disorders-reporting-requirements Accessed on: 2016-09-29.

Heit HA, Gourlay DL. Urine drug testing in pain medicine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 260-267. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010104Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Heit HA. Patient-centered urine drug testing: Facts you should know!. PCSS. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Heit-ASAM-PCSS-MAT-Online-Module-2.pdf Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

Henry JA. Metabolic consequences of drug misuse. Br J Anaesth. 2000; 85(1): 136-142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10928002 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Herve S, Riachi G, Noblet C, Guillement N, Tanasescu S, Odile G, Thuillez C, Tranvouez J, Ducrotte P, Lerebours E. Acute hepatitis due to buprenorphine administration. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2004; 16(10): 1033-1037. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15371928Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Hesse M. The ASRS-6 Has Two Latent Factors: Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2011; 17(3): 203–207. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22262467 Accessed on: 2015-04-21.

HHS. HHS announces new actions to combat opioid epidemic. HHS.gov. 2016; July 6: . Available at: http://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2016/07/06/hhs-announces-new-actions-combat-opioid-epidemic.html Accessed on: 2016-07-06.

Hopfer CJ, Khuri E, Crowley TJ, Hooks S. Adolescent heroin use: a review of the descriptive and treatment literature. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002; 23(3): 231-237. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12392810 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Huestis MA. High-dose buprenorphine in humans. In: Kintz P, Marquet P, eds. Buprenorphine Therapy of Opiate Addiction. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, Inc. 2002. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/158829031X

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

Inpior Inc. Suboxone Highlights of Prescribing Information. www.suboxone.com. Initial 2002, Recent Major Changes 12/2016; Reference ID: 4055394: 1-29. Available at: https://www.suboxone.com/content/pdfs/prescribing-information.pdf Accessed on: 2017-03-30.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing The Quality Chasm: A New Health System For The 21st Century. IOM. 2001. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Invidior. Sublocade: Highlights of Prescribing Information. . 2017. Available at: http://inpior.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/SUBLOCADE-Prescribing-Information.pdf Accessed on: 2017-12-01.

Irwin RS, Rippe JM. Irwin and Rippe’s Intensive Care Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2012. Available at: http://www.lww.com/Product/9781608311835

Johanson CE, Arfken CL, DiMenza S, Schuster CR. persion and abuse of buprenorphine: Findings from national surveys of treatment patients and physicians. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2012; 120(1-30: 190-195. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21862241 Accessed on: 2012-07-19.

Johnson RE, Strain EC, Amass L. Buprenorphine: how to use it right. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(suppl 2): S59-S77. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12738351 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Jones CM, Logan J, Gladden M, et al.. Vital signs: Demographic and substance use trends among heroin users — United States, 2002-2013. MMWR. 2015; 64(26): 719-725. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6426a3.htm?s_cid=mm6426a3_w Accessed on: 2015-07-10.

Jones HE, Fischer G, Heil SH. Maternal Opioid Treatment: Human Experimental Research (MOTHER) – approach, issues and lessons learned. Addiction . 2012; 107: 28-35. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04036.x/full Accessed on: 2014-12-22.

Jones HE, Kaltenbach K, Heil SH, Stine SM, Coyle MG, Arria AM, O’Grady KE, Selby P, Martin PR, Fischer G. Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome after Methadone or Buprenorphine Exposure. New England Journal of Medicine. 2010; 363: 2320-2331. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1005359 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Jones HE. Treating opioid use disorders during pregnancy: historical, current, and future directions. Subst Abus. 2013; 34(2): 89-91. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23577898 Accessed on: 2014-02-05.

Joseph AM, Willenbring ML, Nugent SM, Nelson DB. A randomized trial of concurrent versus delayed smoking intervention for patients in alcohol dependence treatment. J Stud Alcohol. 2004; 65(6): 681-91. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15700504 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Jung O, Haack HS, Buettner M. Renal AA-amyloidosis in intravenous drug users – a role for HIV-infection?. BMC Nephrology . 2012; 13: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23171281 Accessed on: 2015-05-05.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Ordean A, Cirone S. Buprenorphine: New treatment of opioid addiction in primary care. Can Fam Physician. 2011; 57: 281-289. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3056674/ Accessed on: 2013-12-04.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Ordean A, Cirone S. Buprenorphine: new treatment of opioid addiction in primary care. Canadian Family Physician. 2011; 57(3): 281-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3056674/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kakko J, Svanborg KD, Kreek MJ, Heilig M. 1-year retention and social function after buprenorphine-assisted relapse prevention treatment for heroin dependence in Sweden: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003; 361(9358): 662-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12606177 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Kalman D, Morissette SB, George TP. Co-Morbidity of Smoking in Patients with Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. Am J Addict. 2005; 14(2): 106–123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1199553/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Kao MC, Zheng P, Mackey S, et al.. Trends in Benzodiazepine Prescription and Co-Prescription with Opioids in the United States, 2002––2009. AAPM Annual Meeting. . Available at: http://www.painmed.org/2014posters/abstract-109/ Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Kaul P, Coupey SM. Clinical evaluation of substance abuse. Pediatr Rev. 2002; 23(3): 85-94. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11875181 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kidorf M, Disney ER, King VL, Neufeld K, Beilenson PL, Brooner RK. Prevalence of psychiatric and substance use disorders in opioid abusers in a community syringe exchange program. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; May 10; 74(2): 115-22. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15099655 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Kissin W, McLeod C, Sonnefeld J, Stanton A. Experiences of a National Sample of Qualified Addiction Specialists Who Have and Have Not Prescribed Buprenorphine for Opioid Dependence. Journal of Addictive Diseases. 2006; 25(4): 91-103. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17088229 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kleber H, Weiss R, Anton R, et al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with substance use disorders, 3rd edition. American Psychiatric Association. 2010. Available at: http://www.guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=24158 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Klimas J, Field CA, Cullen W. Psychosocial interventions to reduce alcohol consumption in concurrent problem alcohol and illicit drug users: Cochrane Review. Systematic Reviews . 2013; 2: . Available at: http://systematicreviewsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-4053-2-3 Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/153/6/591 Accessed on: 2011-07-14.

Kosten TR, George TP. The neurobiology of opioid addiction: implications for treatment. NIDA Science and Practice Perspectives. 2002; 1(1): 13-20. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851054/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Kraus ML, Alford DP, Kotz MM, et al. Statement of the American Society of Addiction Medicine Consensus Panel on the Use of Buprenorphine in Office-Based Treatment of Opioid Addiction.. Journal of Addiction Medicine . 2011; 5(4): 254-263. Available at: https://www.asam.org/docs/advocacy/use-of-buprenorphine-in-office-based-treatment-of-opioid-addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-12-12.

Krebs EE, Lorenz KA, Bair MJ. Development and initial validation of the PEG, a three-item scale assessing pain intensity and interference. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(6): 733-738. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686775/ Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Labelle C, Han SC, Bergeron A, Samet JH. Office-Based Opioid Treatment with Buprenorphine (OBOT-B): Statewide Implementation of the Massachusetts Collaborative Care Model in Community Health Centers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2015; 15: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26233698

Labelle C. 2014 Updated Information on Buprenorphine Maintenance Treatment. Personal Communication. 2014. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/news-releases/2014/11/buprenorphine-tapering-less-effective-than-ongoing-maintenance-prescription-opioid-abuse

Lange CM , Jacobson IM, Rice CM. Emerging therapies for the treatment of hepatitis C. EMBO Molecular Medicine. 2014; 6: 4-15. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/emmm.201303131/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Larance B, Lintzeris N, Dietze P, et al. The persion and injection of a buprenorphine-naloxone soluble film formulation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014; 136: 21-7. Available at: http://www.drugandalcoholdependence.com/article/S0376-8716(13)00521-8/abstract Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Lavonas EJ, Banner W, Bradt P, Bucher-Bartelson B, Brown KR, Rajan P, Murrelle L, Dart RC, Green JL. Root causes, clinical effects, and outcomes of unintentional exposures to buprenorphine by young children. Journal of Pediatrics. 2013; 163(5): 1377-83. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23993129 Accessed on: 2014-01-06.

Lee JD, Friedmann PD, Kinlock TW, et al.. Extended-release naltrexone to prevent opioid relapse in criminal justice offenders. N Engl J Med. 2016; 374: 1232-1242. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1505409 Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

Lee, JD, Grossman, E, DiRocco, D, Gourevitch, MN. Home buprenorphine/naloxone induction in primary care. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(2): 226–232. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19089508

Leger DL. Study: heroin use is higher than a decade ago . USA Today . 2015. Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/04/23/heroin-use-higher-than-a-decade-ago/26193771/ Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Lemon SC, Friedmann PD, Stein MD. The impact of smoking cessation on drug abuse treatment outcome. Addict Behav. 2003; 28(7): 1323-31. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12915172 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Levounis P. Focus on Marijuana: Current Risks and Controversies. American Psychiatric Association Webinar. 2012. Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/professional-interests/addiction-psychiatry Accessed on: 2014-01-21.

Levy S, Vaughan BL, Angulo M, Knight JR. Buprenorphine replacement therapy for adolescents with opioid dependence: early experience from a children’s hospital-based outpatient treatment program. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2007; 40(5): 477-82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17448411 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Ling W, Casadonte P, Bigelow G, Kampman KM, Patkar A, Bailey GL, Rosenthal RN, Beebe KL. Buprenorphine Implants for Treatment of Opioid Dependence. JAMA. 2010; 304(14): 1576-83. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20940383 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Ling W, Hillhouse , Domier C, Doraimani G, Hunter J, Thomas C, Jenkins J, Hasson A, Annon J, Saxon A, Selzer J, Boverman J, Bilangi R. Buprenorphine tapering schedule and illicit opioid use. Addiction. 2009; 104(2): 256-65. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3150159/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Ling W. Prescription Drug Abuse. Presented at the Western Conference on Addiction, Universal City, CA, 11-13-05. 2005.

Lintzeris N, Clark N, Muhleisen P, et al. National Clinical Guidelines and Procedures for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Heroin Dependence. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health and Aged Care. Publication approval 2873. 2001. Available at: http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet%2Fdrugstrategy%2Fpublishing.nsf%2FContent%2Fbuprenorphine-guide Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Lofwall M. Minimizing the Risks of Buprenorphine persion and Misuse from Office-Based Treatment. PCSS-B webinar. 2011. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCkQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPractice%2FProfessional%2520Interests%2FAddiction%2520Psychiatry%2FLowfall-Slides.pdf&ei=88hWUourDe2z4AOrnYCoDw&usg=AFQjCNHmvSYlWX4L20O6XXOyX0CsKpY27A&bvm=bv.53760139,d.dmg Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Lofwall MR, Havens JR. Inability to access buprenorphine treatment as a risk factor for using perted buprenorphine. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2012; Jun 13 [Epub ahead of print]: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=inability%20to%20access%20buphrenorphine%20treatment%20as%20a%20risk%20factor%20for%20using%20perted%20buprenorphine

Lofwall MR, Walsh SL. A review of buprenorphine persion and misuse: the current evidence base and experiences from around the world. J Addict Med. 2014; 8(5): 315-26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25221984 Accessed on: 2014-10-03.

Lowes R. e-Prescribing Controlled Substances Now Legal Nationwide. MedScape. 2015. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/850268 Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

Lundahl B, Moleni T, Burke BL, et al. Motivational interviewing in medical care settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.. Patient Educ Couns. 2013; 93(2): 157-68. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001658 Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Madras BK, Wilson MC, Avula D, Stegbauer T, Stein JB, Clark HW. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites: Comparison at intake and six months. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 99(1-3): 280-295. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Magill M , Stout RL, Apodaca TR. Therapist focus on ambivalence and commitment: a longitudinal analysis of motivational interviewing treatment ingredients. Psychol Addict Behav. 2013; 27: 754-762. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.libproxy.lib.unc.edu/pmc/articles/PMC3650101/?tool=pmcentrez Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Manchikanti L, Manchukonda R, Damron KS. Does adherence monitoring reduce controlled substance abuse in chronic pain patients?. Pain Physician. 2006; 9(1): 57-60. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16700282 Accessed on: 2014-01-09.

Mannelli P, Peindl KS, Lee T. Buprenorphine-mediated transition from opioid agonist to antagonist treatment: state of the art and new perspectives. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2012; 5(1): 52-63. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3496559/ Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

Manubay JM, Muchow C, Sullivan MA. Prescription drug abuse: epidemiology, regulatory issues, chronic pain management with narcotic analgesics. Prim Care. 2011; 38(1): 71-90, vi. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328297/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Maria A Sullivan , Adam J. Gordon (Original Author) . MAT training: Provider’s clinical support system for medication assisted treatmet. PCSS-MAT. 2013. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceOff-label-bup-for-pain.Gordon.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

Marshall, PS. Physical Functional Ability Questionnaire (FAQ5). In: Assessment and Management of Chronic Pain, 5th edition. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement. 2011; 14: Appendix C:99. Available at: http://www.generationsprimarycare.com/assets/pain-contract.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-10.

Martin J. Adherence, persion and Misuse of Sublingual Buprenorphine. PCSS MAT Training. 2010. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceAdherence-persion-bup.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-03.

Martin J. Adherence, persion and Misuse of Sublingual Buprenorphine. PCSS-MAT. 2009 (update 2014). Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceAdherence-persion-bup.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Martin J. PCSS-MAT Guidance: Pregnancy and buprenorphine treatment. Physicians’ Clinical Support System for Medication Assisted Treatment (PCSS-MAT). 2006. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/PCSS-MATGuidancePregnancy-and-Buprenorphine.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Martin J. Personal Communication re: number of patients maintained on buprenorphine. E-mail. 2011. Accessed on: 2011-03-31.

Martin T & Rocque M. Accidental and Non-Accidental Ingestion of Methadone and Buprenorphine in Childhood: A Single Center Experience, 1999-2009. Current Drug Safety. 2009; 6: 12-16. Available at: http://www.eurekaselect.com/73173/article Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Martins SS, Keyes KM , Storr CL. Pathways between non-medical opioid use/dependence and psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 2009; 103: 16-24. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2699563/Accessed on: 2015-04-24.

Matson SC, Hobson G, Abdel-Rasoul M, Bonny AE. A retrospective study of retention of opioid-dependent adolescents and young adults in an outpatient buprenorphine/naloxone clinic. Addict Behav. 2014; 8(3): 176-82.

Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. The Cochrane Library . 2014. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002207.pub4/abstract Accessed on: 2015-05-05.

Maxwell JC, McCance-Katz EF. Indicators of buprenorphine and methadone use and abuse: what do we know?. Am J Addict. 2010; 19(1): 73-88. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3723402/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Maxwell JC, McCance-Katz EF. Indicators of Buprenorphine and Methadone Use and Abuse: What Do We Know?. The American Journal on Addictions. 2009; 19: 73-88. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2009.00008.x/full Accessed on: 2014-05-21.

McCance-Katz EF, Moody DE, Morse GD, Ma Q, DiFrancesco R, Friedland G, Pade P, Rainey PM. Interaction between buprenorphine and atazanavir or atazanavir/ritonavir. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Science Direct. 2007; 91(2-3): 269-78. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272856/Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

McCance-Katz EF. Treatment of Opioid Dependence and Coinfection with HIV and Hepatitis C Virus in Opioid-Dependent Patients: The Importance of Drug Interactions between Opioids and Antiretroviral Agents. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 41(Suppl 1): S89-95. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16265622Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

McCarthy JJ, Leamon MH, Parr MS, Anania B. High-dose maintenance in pregnancy: maternal and neonatal outcomes. American Journal of Obstetric Gynecology. 2005; 193(3 Pt 1): 606-10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16150249 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

McLellan AT, McKay JR. Components of successful addiction treatment. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003; 3: . Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

McNicholas LF. Buprenorphine: Induction, Dosing and Related Issues. American Psychiatric Association Sponsored Webinar. 2011. Available at: http://vimeo.com/20803777 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Mdege ND , Lang J. Screening instruments for detecting illicit drug use abuse that could be useful in general hospital wards: a systematic review . Addictive Behaviors . 2011; 36: 1111-1119. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21821364 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Mee-Lee D (ed). The ASAM Criteria. ASAM. 2013; 3rd edition: . Available at: http://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria/about/ Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Melemis SM. Relapse prevention and the five rules of recovery. Yale J Biol Med. 2015; 88: 3. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4553654/Accessed on: 2018-04-10.

Melzack R. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain. 1975; 1: 277-299. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1235985 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Mendelson J, Jones RT. Clinical and pharmacological evaluation of buprenorphine and naloxone combinations: why the 4:1 ratio for treatment?. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(2S): S29-S37. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12738348 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Mersy D. Recognition of Alcohol and Substance Abuse. American Family Physician. 2003; 7: 1529-1532. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2003/0401/p1529.htmlAccessed on: 2015-12-04.

Miller WR , Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing. Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. An Overview of Motivational Interviewing. Motivational Interviewing. 2011. Available at: https://www.umass.edu/studentlife/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/Motivational_Interviewing_Definition_Principles_Approach.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing. Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.

Minozzi S, Amato L, Davoli M. Maintenance treatments for opiate dependent adolescent . Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009; 15(2): CD007210. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19370679 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Mintzer IL, Eisenberg M, Terra M, MacVane C, Himmelstein DU, Woolhandler S. Treating opioid addiction with buprenorphine-naloxone in community-based primary care settings. Ann Fam Med. 2007; 5(2): 146-50. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838690/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Monte AA, Mandell T, Wilford BB, et al. persion of buprenorphine/naloxone coformulated tablets in a region with high prescribing prevalence. J of Addictive Diseases. 2009; 28: 226-231. Available at: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F20155591&ei=5fQSVPjOAojP8AHbnIDIBQ&usg=AFQjCNFY2Avnj4kWPn6NZlM-DLGnDueyDA&bvm=bv.75097201,d.b2U Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Monto A, Currie S, Wright TL. Liver disease in injection drug users with hepatitis C, with and without HIV coinfection. J Addict Dis. 2008; 27(2): 49-59. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J069v27n02_06?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed#.Ula6dplDvmcAccessed on: 2013-10-10.

Moore BA, Fiellin DA, Barry DT, Sullivan LE, Chawarski MC, O’Conner PG, Schottenfeld RS. Primary care office-based buprenorphine treatment: comparison of heroin and prescription opioid dependent patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2007; 22: 527-530. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1829433/Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Moos RH, Moos BS, Finney JW. Predictors of deterioration among patients with substance-use disorders. J Clin Psychol. 2001; 57(12): 1403-1419. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11745584 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Morasco BJ, Cavanagh R, Gritzner S , Dobscha SK. Care management practices for chronic pain in veterans prescribed high doses of opioid medications.. Farm Pract . 2013; 6: 671-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2972371/ Accessed on: 2014-11-07.

NaloxoneInfo.org. Naloxone Information. NaloxoneInfo.org. . Available at: http://naloxoneinfo.org/sites/default/files/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions-Naloxone_EN.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Nasser AF, Heidbreder C, Liu Y, et al.. Pharmacokinetics of sublingual buprenorphine and naloxone in subjects with mild to severe hepatic impairment (Child-Pugh classes A, B, and C), in hepatitis C virus-seropositive subjects, and in healthy volunteers. . Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2015; 54(8): 837-49. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25603822 Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. NIH Analysis Shows Americans are in Pain. National Institutes of Health. 2015. Available at: https://nccih.nih.gov/news/press/08112015?nav=pin Accessed on: 2015-10-02.

National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC). Intelligence Bulletin: Buprenorphine: Potential for Abuse. The United States Department of Justice Archives. 2004. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs10/10123/index.htm Accessed on: 2013-12-10.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Linked Epidemics: Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS. Topics in Brief. 2005. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/topics-in-brief/linked-epidemics-drug-abuse-hivaids Accessed on: 2011-04-16.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide. Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2012; December: . Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

NCCHC. Substance Use Disorder Treatment for Adults and Adolescents. National Commission on Correctional Health Care. 2016. Available at: http://www.ncchc.org/substance-use-disorder-treatment-for-adults-and-adolescents Accessed on: 2016-12-13.

Neaigus A, Miller M, Gyarmathy VA, Friedman SR. HIV heterosexual sexual risk from injecting drug users among HIV-seronegative noninjecting heroin users. Subst Use Misuse. 2011; 46(2-3): 208-17. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21303241 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

NIAAA. Alcohol Facts and Statistics. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 2005. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2011-07-13.

NIDA. Screening for drug use in general medical settings. Resource guide.. http://www.drugabuse.gov. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide/preface Accessed on: 2014-09-19.

Nielsen S , Hillhouse M , Thomas C. A comparison of buprenorphine taper outcomes between prescription opioid and heroin users. J Addict Med . 2013; 7(1): 33-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222095 Accessed on: 2015-05-14.

Nielsen S, Dietze P, Lee N, Dunlop A, Taylor D. Concurrent buprenorphine and benzodiazepines use and self-reported opioid toxicity in opioid substitution treatment. Addiction. 2007; 102(4): 616-22. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17286641 Accessed on: 2014-02-07.

Nielsen S, Hillhouse M, Thomas C, Hasson A, Ling W. A Comparison of Buprenorphine Taper Outcomes Between Prescription Opioid and Heroin Users. J Addict Med. 2013; 7: 33-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222095 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

NIH. National Trends. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2014. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/nationwide-trends Accessed on: 2015-05-07.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction. SAMHSA. 2012. Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA09-4443/SMA09-4443.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

Oreskovich MR, Saxon AJ, Ellis ML, Malte CA, Reoux JP, Knox PC. A double-blind, double-dummy, randomized, prospective pilot study of the partial mu opiate agonist, buprenorphine, for acute detoxification from heroin. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005; 77(1): 71-9. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15607843 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Orexo US Inc. Zubsolv prescribing information. Zubsolv. 2013. Available at: https://www.zubsolv.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ZubsolvFullPrescribingInformation.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-02.

O’Connor AB, Collett A, Alto WA, O’Brien LM. Breastfeeding rates and the relationship between breastfeeding and neonatal abstinence syndrome in women maintained on buprenorphine during pregnancy . Journal of Midwifery Women’s Health. 2013; 58(4): 383-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23931660 Accessed on: 2014-06-18.

Pade PA, Cardon KE, Hoffman RM, Geppert CM. Prescription opioid abuse, chronic pain, and primary care: a Co-occurring Disorders Clinic in the chronic disease model. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2012; 43(4): 446-50. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22980449 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Pajusco B, Chiamulera C, Quaglio G, Moro L, Casari R, Amen G, Faccini M, Lugoboni F. Tobacco Addiction and Smoking Status in Heroin Addicts under Methadone vs. Buprenorphine Therapy. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2012; 9(3): 932–942. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367288/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Pani PP, Vacca R, Troqu E, Amato L, Davoli M. Pharmacological treatment for depression during opioid agonist treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010; 8(9): CD008373. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008373.pub2/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Passik S. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2006; 20(2): 5-13. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702131 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Patrick, D. Dual diagnosis: substance-related and psychiatric disorders. The Nursing Clinics of North America. 2003; 38: 67-73.

Paulozzi L, Baldwin G. CDC Grand Rounds: Prescription Drug Overdoses — a U.S. Epidemic. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2012; 61(01): 10-13. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6101a3.htm Accessed on: 2014-01-17.

PCSS. Vivitrol: How important is this piece of the treatment puzzle?. Providers’ Clinical Support System Monthly Update. 2015; September: . Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/September-2015-PCSS-Monthly-Update.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

PCSS. XR-Naltrexone: A step-by-step guide. Provider’s Clinical Support System for Medicated Assisted Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://custom.cvent.com/10D3BAE39269457884C1D96DE1DF8D8D/files/b8f05ba83cfe4b859a8f5f72602878f0.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-15.

Perneger TV, Klag MJ, Whelton PK. Recreational drug use: a neglected risk factor for end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 38(1): 49-56. Available at: http://www.ajkd.org/article/S0272-6386(01)33204-3/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Pickett M, Rogers PD, Cavanaugh RM Jr. Screening for alcohol, tobacco, and drug use in children and adolescents. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Potter JS, Marino En, Hillhouse MP. Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone maintenance treatment outcomes for opioid analgesic, heroin, and combined users: findings from starting treatment with agonist replacement therapies (START). J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2013; 74(4): 605-13. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23739025 Accessed on: 2015-05-05.

Prochaska JJ, Delucchi K, Hall SM. A meta-analysis of smoking cessation interventions with inpiduals in substance abuse treatment or recovery. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004; 72(6): 1144-56. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15612860 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Purdue . Butrans transdermal system . Butrans.com. 2015. Available at: https://www.butrans.com/hcpportal/f?p=BUTRANSRX:HOME:0::::: Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

Purdue Pharma. Butrans™ CIII (buprenorphine) Transdermal System. Butrans Website. 2010. Available at: http://www.butrans.com/

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc. Buprenex injectable – RX only – Schedule III . NAABT. 2007. Available at: http://www.naabt.org/documents/buprenex_PI.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc. SUBOXONE (buprenorphine hydrochloride, naloxone hydrochloride) film, soluble [Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc] . DailyMed. 2014; April: . Available at: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=8a5edcf9-828c-4f97-b671-268ab13a8ecd Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc. Suboxone Prescribing Information. Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals. 2014. Available at: http://www.suboxone.com/content/pdfs/prescribing-information.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-09.

Reckitt Benckiser Pharmaceuticals Inc.. SUBOXONE® (Sub-OX-own) (buprenorphine and naloxone) Sublingual Film (CIII) . MEDICATION GUIDE. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafetyinformationforpatientsandproviders/ucm227949.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-22.

Rehab Center. Rehab Center. 2013. Available at: http://www.rehabcenter.net/wp-content/themes/rehab-center/pdfs/how-to-use-a-naloxone-overdose-prevention-kit-infographic.pdf Accessed on: 2017-01-31.

Reid MS, Mickalian JD, Delucchi KL, Hall SM, Berger SP. An acute dose of nicotine enhances cue-induced cocaine craving. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1998; 49(2): 95-104. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/9543646/?i=2&from=/19375250/related Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Reid MS, Selzer J, Rotrosen J. Smoking Cessation treatment at Substance Abuse Rehabilitation Programs. Northeast ATTC Newsletter. 2006; 5(2): 2-5. Available at: http://ctndisseminationlibrary.org/PDF/156.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Renner J (Chair), Saxon A, Levounis P. Buprenorphine Update and Evolving Standards of Care. IPS: The Mental Health Services Conference, New York City. 2015; Oct 8-11: . Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Meetings/IPS-TheMentalHealthServicesConference/IPS-Program-Guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-15.

Renner J, Lavounis P. Handbook of Office-Based Buprenorphine Treatment of Opioid Dependence. American Psychiatric Publishing, Arlington VA. 2011. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Office-based-Buprenorphine-Treatment-Dependence/dp/1585623695 Accessed on: 2013-12-11.

Reuter N. Personal Communication via e-mail re: Buprenorphine Waivered Physicians. E-mail. 2011. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472%2814%2900147-0/fulltext Accessed on: 2011-04-08.

RL Hubbard , SG Craddock, J Anderson. Overview of 5-year followup outcomes in the drug abuse treatment outcome studies (DATOS). Institute for Community-Based Research, National Development and Research Institutes, Inc.. 2003. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472(03)00130-2/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Romano G, Barbera N, Spadaro G, Valenti V. Determination of drugs of abuse in hair: evaluation of external heroin contamination and risk of false positives. Forensic Sci Int. 2003; 131(2-3): 98-102. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03790738 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Rondinelli AJ, Ouellet LJ, Strathdee SA, Latka MH, Hudson SM, Garfein RS. Young adult injection drug users in the United States continue to practice HIV risk behaviors. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 104(1-2): 167-74. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19559543 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Rosenthal RN, Lofwall MR, Kim S, et al. Effect of buprenorphine implants on illicit opioid use among abstinent adults with opioid dependence treated with sublingual buprenorphine. A randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016; 316: 282-290. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2533504Accessed on: 2016-07-25.

Roxane Laboratories Inc. Buprenorphine Prescribing Information. Roxane Laboratories . 2012. Available at: http://bidocs.boehringer-ingelheim.com/BIWebAccess/ViewServlet.ser?docBase=renetnt&folderPath=/Prescribing+Information/PIs/Roxane/Buprenorphine+HCl+Sublingual+Tabs/10004964_01+Buprenorphine+HCl+Sublingual+Tabs.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-09.

Roxane Laboratories. Buprenorphine and naloxone sublingual tablets: Full prescribing information. Dailymed.nlm.nih. 2016. Available at: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1bf8b35a-b769-465c-a2f8-099868dfcd2f Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

Rudd RA. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-12-20.

RX List. Suboxone. rxlist.com. 2014. Available at: http://www.rxlist.com/suboxone-drug/side-effects-interactions.htm Accessed on: 2014-02-07.

Saber-Tehrani AS, Bruce RD, Altice FL. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions and adverse consequences between psychotropic medications and pharmacotherapy for the treatment of opioid dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011; 37(1): 1-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21247284 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Salsitz EA, Wunsch MJ. PCSS-B Guidance on Drug Enforcement Administration Requirements for Prescribers and Dispensers of Buprenorphine and Buprenorphine/Naloxone. American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry. 2010; January 25: . Available at: https://www.naabt.org/documents/PCSS_All-Guidance-06022010.pdf Accessed on: 2013-12-10.

SAMHSA Press Office. Sharp rise in buprenorphine-related emergency department visits from 2005 to 2010. SAMHSA Bulletin. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/201301290645 Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

SAMHSA. An Introduction to Extended-Release Injectable Naltrexone for the Treatment of People With Opioid Dependence. SAMHSA Advisory. 2012; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 12-4682: 1-8. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA12-4682/SMA12-4682.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-14.

SAMHSA. Clinical Drug Testing in Primary Care. SAMHSA Website. 2012. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA12-4668/SMA12-4668.pdfAccessed on: 2015-12-03.

SAMHSA. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. TIP 40. SAMHSA/CSAT. Treatment Improvement Protocols. 2004; TIP 40: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2016-10-25.

SAMHSA. Federal Guidelines For Opioid Treatment Programs. HHS Publication No. (SMA) PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP. 2015. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP/PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-07.

SAMHSA. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. https://store.samhsa.gov. 2017; Pub id: SMA17-5044: Series: NSDUH. Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Key-Substance-Use-and-Mental-Health-Indicators-in-the-United-States-/SMA17-5044 Accessed on: 2018-04-06.

SAMHSA. Medication and Counseling Treatment. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/15: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. Methadone. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/2015: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/methadone Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-31.

SAMHSA. Number of DATA Certified Physicians. SAMHSA Website. 2015. Available at: http://buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/ Accessed on: 2015-04-09.

SAMHSA. Opioid Treatment Program Directory. Medical-Assisted Treatment for Substance Use Disorders. 2011. Available at: http://dpt2.samhsa.gov/treatment/directory.aspx Accessed on: 2011-04-14.

SAMHSA. Physician and Program Data. SAMHSA Medication Assisted Treatment. 2018. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/programs-campaigns/medication-assisted-treatment/physician-program-data Accessed on: 2018-04-16.

SAMHSA. Protracted withdrawal. Substance Abuse Treatment Advisory. 2010; 9: 1. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/product/Protracted-Withdrawal/SMA10-4554 Accessed on: 2014-09-10.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresults2012/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-30.

SAMHSA. SAMHSA Bulletin – Sharp rise in buprenorphine-related emergency department visits from 2005 to 2010. samhsa.gov. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/201301290645 Accessed on: 2013-12-06.

SAMHSA. Substance Abuse Confidentiality Regulations. SAMHSA. 2015. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/about-us/who-we-are/laws-regulations/confidentiality-regulations-faqs Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

SAMHSA. Substance Use Disorders. SAMHSA website. 2014. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/treatment/substance-use-disorders Accessed on: 2015-04-22.

Sansone RA, Whitecar P, Wiederman MW. The prevalence of borderline personality among buprenorphine patients. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2008; 38(2): 217-26. Available at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23191355_The_prevalence_of_borderline_personality_among_buprenorphine_patients Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Savage SD, Kirsh KL, Passik, SD. Challenges in using opioids to treat pain in persons with substance use disorders. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18497713 Accessed on: 2011-04-15.

Saxon AJ, Ling W, Hillhouse M, et al. Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone effects on laboratory indices of liver health: A randomized trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 128: 71-76. Available at: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F22921476&ei=3iITVPblKsnmyATAy4HABw&usg=AFQjCNEwLOvDgy4ZcuCZP2_4dOtRMO0aVw&bvm=bv.75097201,d.aWw Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Schoener EP, Hopper JA, Pierre JD. Injection drug use in North America. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002; 16(3): 535-551. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371114 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Seal KH, Shi Y , Cohen G. Association of Mental Health Disorders With Prescription Opioids and High-Risk Opioid Use in US Veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. JAMA. 2012; 307: 940-947. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1105046 Accessed on: 2015-04-22.

Sees KL, Clark HW. When to begin smoking cessation in substance abusers. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1993; 10(2): 189-95. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8510193 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Senay EC. Opioids: methadone maintenance. In: Galanter M, Kleber HD, eds. Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. 1999.

Shoptaw S, Rotheram-Fuller E, Yang X, Frosch D, Nahom D, Jarvik ME, Rawson RA, Ling W. Smoking cessation in methadone maintenance. Addiction. 2002; 97(10): 1317-28. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12359036 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2010; 170(13): 1155-60. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Sontag D. Addiction Treatment With a Dark Side. New York Times. 2013. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/health/in-demand-in-clinics-and-on-the-street-bupe-can-be-savior-or-menace.html?smid=pl-share Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Soyka M. Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone intoxication in children — How strong is the risk?. Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 2013; 6(1): 63-70. Available at: http://www.eurekaselect.com/111928/article?trendmd-shared=0 Accessed on: 2015-11-17.

Sparling, PB et al. Exercise activates the endocannibinoid system. NeuroReport. 2003; 14(17): 2209-2211. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625449 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Stanhope TJ, Gill LA, Rose C. Chronic opioid use during pregnancy: maternal and fetal implications. Clinics in Perinatology. 2013; 40(3): 337-50. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23972743 Accessed on: 2014-06-18.

Stanton A, Mcleod C, Luckey B, Kissin W, Sonnefeld LJ. SAMHSA/CSAT Evaluation of the Buprenorphine Waiver Program. Paper presented at: 37th Annual Medical- Scientific Conference of the American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2006. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/programs_campaigns/medication_assisted/evaluation-buprenorphine-waiver-program-study-overview.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews . 2006; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437445 Accessed on: 2015-09-01.

Stephenson DK, SAM Committee on Treatment of Opioid Dependence. Draft Guidelines for Physicians Working in California Opioid Treatment Programs. California Society of Addiction Medicine. 2008. Available at: http://www.csam-asam.org/guideline-physicians-working-california-opioid-treatment-programs Accessed on: 2013-12-18.

Sterling S, Chi F, Hinman A. Integrating Care for People With Co­-Occurring Alcohol and Other Drug, Medical, and Mental Health Conditions . Alcohol Research & Health. 2011; 33(4): 338-349. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh334/338-349.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-07.

Stewart DG, Brown SA. Withdrawal and dependency symptoms among adolescent alcohol and drug abusers. Addiction. 1995; 90(5): 627-635. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7795499 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Stine SM, Greenwald MK, Kosten TR. Pharmacologic interventions for opioid addiction. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Strain EC, Moody DE, Stoller KE, Walsh SL, Bigelow GE. Relative bioavailability of different buprenorphine formulations under chronic dosing conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2004; 74(1): 37-43. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072805 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Strain EC. Assessment and treatment of comorbid psychiatric disorders in opioid-dependent patients. Clin J Pain. 2002; 18(4 Suppl): S14-27.

Subramaniam G, Levy S. PCSS-MAT Guidance: Treatment of opioid dependent adolescents and young adults using sublingual buprenorphine. Physicians’ Clinical Support System for Medication Assisted Treatment (PCSS-MAT). 2010. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentofOpioidDependantAdolescent-buprenorphine.SubramaniamLevy1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Subramaniam GA, Fishman MJ, Woody G. Treatment of opioid-dependent adolescents and young adults with buprenorphine. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2009; 11(5): 360-3. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19785976 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT). A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). About Buprenorphine Therapy. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). 2011. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/buprenorphine

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Tobacco Use Cessation During Substance Abuse Treatment Counseling. SAMHSA Apsory. 2011; 10(2): 1-8. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA11-4636CLIN/SMA11-4636CLIN.pdf Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Use of Buprenorphine in the Pharmacologic Management of Opioid Dependence: A Curriculum for Physicians. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2001. Available at: http://www.uiphp.org.ua/media/1488 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Confidentiality of Patient Records for Alcohol and Other Drug Treatment. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Technical Assistance Publication Series, No. 13. 1994a. Available at: http://adaiclearinghouse.org/downloads/TAP-13-Confidentiality-of-Patient-Records-for-Alcohol-and-Other-Drug-Treatment-103.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Intensive Outpatient Treatment for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Technical Improvement Protocol Series, No. 8. 1993b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22514865 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse: Opportunities for Coordination. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Technical Assistance Publication Series, No. 11. 1994b. Available at: https://secure.addictioncounselorce.com/articles/102015/TAP-11-Treatment-for-Alcohol-and-Other-Drug-Abuse-Opportunities-for-Coordination-101-1-.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. New federal regulations issued to improve methadone treatment. NIH. 2001. Available at: http://methadone.org/library/samhsa_pr_2001_new_regulations.html

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-48. 2014; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-03-12.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment of Adolescents With Substance Use Disorders. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 32. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. USDHHS Publication (SMA) 99-3283. 1999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64350/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Use of buprenorphine in the pharmacologic management of opioid dependence: a curriculum for physicians. NIH. 2001b. Available at: http://www.buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/Buprenorphine_Curriculum.pdf

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Aministration. Opioid Overdose Toolkit. SAMHSA. . Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content/SMA13-4742/Overdose_Toolkit_2014_Jan.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J, et al. Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised clinical institute withdrawal assessment for alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict. 1989; 84(11): 1353-7. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2597811 Accessed on: 2017-03-16.

Sullivan MA, Covey LS. Current perspectives on smoking cessation among substance abusers. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2002; 4(5): 388-396. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12230968 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Sullivan, L, Fiellin, D. Narrative Review: Buprenorphine for Opioid-Dependent Patients in Office Practice. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2008; 148(9): 662-670. Available at: http://www.intnsa.org/resources/publications/position_june_2012.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Sullivan, M, Martin J (original author). New Information on Buprenorphine Treatment During Pregnancy. Personal Communication. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/PCSS-MATGuidancePregnancy-and-Buprenorphine.Martin.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-14.

Szabo L. Addiction treatment hard to find, even as overdose deaths soar . USA Today . 2015. Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/05/24/addiction-treatment-shortage/27181773 Accessed on: 2015-05-28.

Tamm L, Trello-Rishel K, Riggs P, Nakonezny P, Acosta M, Bailey G, Winhusen T. Predictors of treatment response in adolescents with comorbid substance use disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Subst Abuse Treat. 2013; 44(2): 224-30. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3499678/Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Taylor FB, Martin P, Thompson C, et al. Prazosin effects on objective sleep measures and clinical symptoms in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder: A placebo-controlled study. Biological Psychiatry. 2008; 63(6): 629-32. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17868655 Accessed on: 2015-09-01.

Thomas CP, Fullerton CA, Kim M, Montejano L, Lyman DR, Dougherty RH, Daniels AS, Ghose SS, Delphin-Rittmon ME. Medication-assisted treatment with buprenorphine: assessing the evidence. Psychiatr Serv. 2014; 65(2): 158-70. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24247147 Accessed on: 2014-06-18.

Titan Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Braeburn Pharmaceuticals . Titan Pharmaceuticals and Braeburn Pharmaceuticals Announce FDA Advisory Committee Recommends Approval of Probuphine, First 6-Month Implant to Treat Opioid Addiction. (From their website).. Titan Pharmaceuticals and Braeburn Pharmaceuticals Announce FDA Advisory Committee Recommends Approval of Probuphine, First 6-Month Implant to Treat Opioid Addiction . 2016. Available at: http://www.titanpharm.com/news/press-releases/detail/146/titan-pharmaceuticals-and-braeburn-pharmaceuticals-announce Accessed on: 2016-02-17.

Tolia VN, Patrick SW, Bennett MM, et al. Increasing incidence of the neonatal abstinence syndrome in U.S. Neonatal ICUs. NEJM. 2015; 372: 2118-2126. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1500439 Accessed on: 2018-04-06.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis.html Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

TransMed. CLIA Screen In-Vitro (CSI) 12-Panel Drug Test Screening Cup CLIA Waived. TransMed Drug Testing & Laboratory Supplies. . Available at: http://www.transmedco.com/CLIA/CSI-12.html Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

Trémeau F, Darreye A, Staner L, Corrêa H, Weibel H, Khidichian F, Macher JP. Suicidality in opioid-dependent subjects. Am J Addict. 2008; 17(3): 187-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18463995 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Tzschentke TM. Behavioral pharmacology of buprenorphine, with a focus on preclinical models of reward and addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002; 161(1): 1-16. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11967625 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2012 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Section 12. Labor Force, Employment, and Earnings. http://www.census.gov. 2012. Available at: http://www.census.gov/library/publications/2011/compendia/statab/131ed/labor-force-employment-earnings.html Accessed on: 2015-10-15.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Addressing prescription drug abuse in the United States . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/pdf/hhs_prescription_drug_abuse_report_09.2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Office of persion Control. National Forensic Laboratory Information System: Year 2009 Annual Report. National Forensic Library Information System Annual Report. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/nflis/2009annual_rpt.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-14.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force banner U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for Illicit Drug Use . U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008; January: . Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-19.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final recommendation statement – Depression in adults: Screening. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

UMBC. SBIRT: Screen for Substance Use – Positive Screen. UMBC. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-A4Wea3SaE Accessed on: 2016-11-15.

UMBCtube. SBIRT: Screen for Substance Use – Negative Screen. YouTube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5LjhAJMTwmI Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Congress. Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. United States Congress. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/docs/dwp_buprenorphine.htm Accessed on: 2011-06-29.

US Department of Justice. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations: PART 1306 — PRESCRIPTIONS. US Department of Justice – Office of persion Control. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1306/1306_05.htm Accessed on: 2015-05-04.

US Department of Justice. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations: PART 1311 —REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRONIC ORDERS AND PRESCRIPTIONS. US Department of Justice – Office of persion Control. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1311/subpart_c100.htm Accessed on: 2015-05-04.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guidelines. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/ Accessed on: 2016-11-15.

Verheul R. Co-morbidity of personality disorders in inpiduals with substance use disorders. Eur Psychiatry. 2001; 16(5): 274-282. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11514129 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Volkow N. NIDA-supported science leads to first FDA-approved medication for opioid withdrawal . NIDA. 2018. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2018/05/nida-supported-science-leads-to-first-fda-approved-medication-opioid-withdrawal Accessed on: 2018-05-23.

Waknine Y. FDA Approves 7-Day Buprenorphine Pain Patch. Medscape Today. 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/724626 Accessed on: 2011-07-13.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm391465.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Walsh SL. Clinically Relevant Pharmacology of Buprenorphine. UK HealthCare CECentral. 2009. Available at: http://www.cecentral.com/ Accessed on: 2011-07-18.

Wang J, Christo PJ. The influence of prescription monitoring programs on chronic pain management. Pain Physician. 2009; 12: 507-515. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19461820 Accessed on: 2014-05-24.

Warden D, Riggs P, Min S, Mikulich-Gilbertson S, Tamm L, Trello-Rishel K, Winhusen T. Major depression and treatment response in adolescents with ADHD and substance use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012; 120(1-3): 214-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3245790/ Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Warner M , Hedegaard H , Chen LH. Trends in drug-poisoning deaths involving opioid analgesics and heroin: United States, 1999-2012. NCHS health e-stats. 2014. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/drug_poisoning/drug_poisoning_deaths_1999-2012.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief. 2009; NCHS Data Brief, no. 22: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-15.

Wartenberg A. Management of Buprenorphine Side Effects. American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/home Accessed on: 2013-12-12.

Weiss RD, Potter JS, Fiellin DA, Byrne M, Connery HS, Dickinson W, Gardin J, Griffin ML, Gourevitch MN, Haller DL, Hasson HL, Huang Z, Jacobs P, Kosinski AS, Lindblad R, McCance-Katz EF, Provost SE, Selzer J, Somoza EC, Sonne SC, Ling W. Adjunctive Counseling During Brief and Extended Buprenorphine-Naloxone Treatment for Prescription Opioid Dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012; 68(12): 1238-1246. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3470422/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Weiss RD, Potter JS, Griffin ML, Provost SE, Fitzmaurice GM, McDermott KA, Srisarajivakul EN, Dodd DR, Dreifuss JA, McHugh RK, Carroll KM. Long-term outcomes from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25818060 Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Wish ED, Artigiani D, Billing A, Hauser W, et al. The emerging buprenorphine epidemic in the United States. J Addict Dis. 2012; 31(1): 3-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22356664 Accessed on: 2012-07-19.

Woody G, Poole S, Subramaniam G, et al. Extended vs short-term buprenorphine-naloxone for treatment of opioid-addicted youth: a randomized trail. AMA. 2008; 300(17): 2003-11. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610690/ Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Wu LT, Woody GE, Yang C, Blazer DG. Subtypes of nonmedical opioid users: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 112: 69–80. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2967592/ Accessed on: 2015-04-15.

Xi ZX, Stein EA. GABAergic mechanisms of opiate reinforcement. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002; 37(5): 485-494. Available at: http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/content/37/5/485 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Yokell MA, Zaller ND, Green TC, Rich JD. Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone persion, misuse, and illicit use: an international review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2011; 4: 28-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154701/ Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Zacny J, Bigelow G, Compton P, Foley K, Iguchi M, Sannerud C. College on Problems of Drug Dependence task force on prescription opioid non-medical use and abuse: position statement. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 69(3): 215-232. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12633908 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Zubkoff L, Shiner B, Watts BV. Staff Perceptions of Substance Use Disorder Treatment in VA Primary Care–Mental Health Integrated Clinics. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2016; 70: 44-49. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2016.07.011 Accessed on: 2016-12-02.

Öhlin L, Fridell M, Nyhlén A. Buprenorphine maintenance program with contracted work/education and low tolerance for non-prescribed drug use: a cohort study of outcome for women and men after seven years. BMC Psychiatry. 2015; 15:56 (ISSN: 1471-244X). 2015; 15(56): ISSN: 1471-244X. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244X/15/56 Accessed on: 2015-09-17.

Professional practice gaps exist when there is a disparity between educational needs and the ideal or desired level of knowledge, competence, and performance. Only around 6% of U.S. physicians are waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for office-based treatment of opioid use disorder (SAMHSA, 2017). Physicians are likely to encounter patients having this disorder due to the size of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older engage in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2017). Many people who need treatment are still not receiving it (SAMHSA, 2016). Federal law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour training in order to prescribe buprenorphine (CARA, 2016; DATA, 2000). Providing physician this training will prepare them to treat the many patients having opioid use disorder.

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder for which 8 hours of training by an approved organization is required by law in order to prescribe it (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). Providing information on all aspects of buprenorphine treatment will help address this knowledge need. Moreover, buprenorphine treatment has a complex protocol that must be followed for successful outcomes and to minimize risks of overdose, death, and persion (FSMB, 2013), which validates the need for mandatory training in order to prescribe it. Understanding of clinical protocol and how to apply it will help address this competence need. Lastly, despite the demonstrated effectiveness of buprenorphine, a relatively small percentage (3%) of U.S. physicians are trained and credentialed to prescribe it (NAABT, 2017). Experience with interactive case scenarios helps address the performance need of translating competence in following the protocol into actual practice.

 

Practice Gap References

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

NAABT. The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. NAABT The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://www.naabt.org/tl/buprenorphine-suboxone-treatment.cfm Accessed on: 2018-02-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-52. 2017; HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/topics/data_outcomes_quality/nsduh-ppt-09-2017.pdf Accessed on: 2018-02-20.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

United States Congress. Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. United States Congress. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/docs/dwp_buprenorphine.htm Accessed on: 2011-06-29.

This is the Activity Description for NP/PA

NYS OASAS Credit Statement: Clinical Tools, Inc. designates this enduring material for a maximum of 4 hour(s) of NYS OASAS credit. Providers and other health professionals should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

AAFP Credit Statement: This Enduring Material activity, SBIRT Core Training Activity: Screening, Brief Interventions, and Referral to Treatment (V2), has been reviewed and is acceptable for up to 4 prescribed credit(s) by the American Academy of Family Physicians. AAFP accreditation begins August 1, 2011. Term of approval is for two years from this date with the option of yearly renewal.Providers and other health professionals should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

DCBN Credit Statement: Clinical Tools, Inc. designates this enduring material for a maximum of 4 hour(s) of DCBN credit. Clinical Tools, Inc. is an approved provider by the District of Columbia Board of Nursing and is registered with CE Broker, Provider #50-1942.

FBM Credit Statement: Clinical Tools, Inc. designates this enduring material for a maximum of 4 hour(s) of FBM credit. Providers and other health professionals should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

FAPA Credit Statement: Clinical Tools, Inc. designates this enduring material for a maximum of 4 hour(s) of FAPA credit. Providers and other health professionals should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

AMA PRA Category 1 Credit™ Designation Statement: Clinical Tools, Inc. designates this enduring material for a maximum of AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

NBCC Credit Statement: Clinical Tools, Inc. designates this enduring material for a maximum of 4 clock hour(s) of NBCC credit. Clinical Tools, Inc. has been approved by NBCC as an Approved Continuing Education Provider, ACEP No. 6161. Activities that do not qualify for NBCC credit are clearly identified. Clinical Tools is solely responsible for all aspects of the activity.

Login

Username

Password

Remember Me

Forgot Your Password?

Please fill out your information below, then Login to get started!