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Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-279. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17524574 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Tonigan JS, Miller WR, Schermer C. Atheists, agnostics and Alcoholics Anonymous. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 534-541. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12380849 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis3.html

U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 . 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2010. Available at: https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/PolicyDoc.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-23.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. . Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention . 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Screening for illicit drug use. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-30.

UMBCtube . SBIRT: Brief Intervention: At Risk Alcohol Use . Youtube . 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebsqETBWEdQ Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Screening for drug use in general medical settings: Resource guide. . 2010. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/resource_guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors: Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. US DOL. 2009. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

University of Wisconsin Center for Tobacco Research & Intervention (UW-CTRI). International Classification of Diseases (ICD) – 10 Codes Tobacco/Nicotine Dependence, and Secondhand Smoke Exposure Effective October 1, 2015. . 2015. Available at: http://www.ctri.wisc.edu/documents/icd10.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-05.

USDA. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. . 2015. Available at: https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/pdfs/scientific-report-of-the-2015-dietary-guidelines-advisory-committee.pdf Accessed on: 2015-11-21.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

van der Wouden JC, Rietmeijer C. Motivational Interviewing in the Medical Care Setting. Patient Education Counseling . 2014; 96(1): 142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24856448 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Wagner C, Conners W. Interaction techniques. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center. 2003c. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.

Wagner C, Conners W. Motivational interviewing principles. Motivational Interviewing Website. 2003b. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.

Waldron HB, Turner CW. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescent substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2008; 37: 238-261. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18444060 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Washington State Department of Health (WSDH). Substance abuse during pregnancy: guidelines for screening and management . Office of Healthy Communities . 2015. Available at: http://here.doh.wa.gov/materials/guidelines-substance-abuse-pregnancy Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

Weddle M, Kokotailo P. Adolescent substance abuse. Confidentiality and consent.. The Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2002; 49(2): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11993284 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Weisleder P. The right of minors to confidentiality and informed consent. Journal of Child Neurology. 2004; 19(2): 145-148. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072109 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Westar HA , Aviram A. Core Skills in Motivational Interviewing. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2013; 50(3): 273-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24000834 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Westra HA. Motivational interviewing in the treatment of anxiety . The Guilford Press. 2012. Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing-in-the-Treatment-of-Anxiety/Henny-Westra/9781462525997 Accessed on: 2015-06-25.

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002; 97: 1183-1194. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12199834 Accessed on: 2015-06-02.

Williams JF, Smith VC, Committee on Substance Abuse. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2015; 136: 5: 1395-1406. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/10/13/peds.2015-3113 Accessed on: 2015-10-22.

Winzelberg A, Humphreys K. Should patients’ religiosity influence clinicians’ referral to 12-step self-help groups? Evidence from a study of 3,018 male substance abuse patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999; 67(5): 790-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10535246 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

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Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Approximately 20 to 25% of primary care patients are likely to have a current substance use problem or health problem related to tobacco, alcohol, or drug use (Madras et al., 2009; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Screening, brief interventions, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) provided to all patients is effective in reducing alcohol, drug, and tobacco use (Agerwala & McCance-Katz, 2012; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Brief intervention in primary care is an effective and cost-efficient approach to reduce patients’ alcohol use (Seale et al., 2010; Madras et al., 2009). SBIRT was originally designed for patients with alcohol and tobacco use, but there is growing evidence that brief interventions for illicit drug use also leads to positive patient outcomes (Compton, 2009). Motivational interviewing is a set of structured counseling skills that has been shown to be one of the most effective means of motivating patients to change addictive behavior (Miller and Rollnick, 2012) and has been used successfully in primary care settings as the brief intervention phase of addiction treatment (Rahm et al., 2014).

Unfortunately, PCPs screen less than half of their patients for tobacco use and less than a third for alcohol use (Roche & Freeman, 2004; Seale et al., 2010). Brief interventions happen even less often than screening (NDCP, 2008). In patients who screened positive for substance use, less than 75% received a brief intervention. A lack of adequate training is the most frequently reported barrier to screening and brief intervention (Le et al., 2015). Appropriate follow-up is also happening less often as well (D’Amico et al., 2005). Only 48% of people with excessive alcohol use reported receiving follow-up, with most simply being told to “stop drinking”. There is also a practice gap in referral to treatment. Less than one-fifth of PCPs make a referral after screening positively for substance abuse or risky substance use (Madras et al., 2009). Primary care physicians need to understand the different types of specialty treatment so that they can make appropriate referrals for their substance abuse patients (SAMHSA, 1997).

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Le KB, Johnson AJ, Seale JP, Woodall H, Clark DC, Parish DC, Miller DP. Primary care residents lack comfort and experience with alcohol screening and brief intervention: A multi-site survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2015; 30: 790-796. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666210 Accessed on: 2015-06-19.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Screen & brief intervention. . 2008. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ondcp/screen_brief_intv.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Seale JP, Shellenberger S, Velzsquez MM, Boltri JM, Okosun I, Guyinn M, Vinson D, Cornelius M, Johnson JA. Impact of vital signs screening and clinician prompting on alcohol and tobacco screening and intervention rates: a pre-post intervention comparison. BMC Fam Pract. 2010; 11:18: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205740 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.

Part 1:

Data from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health shows that a serious epidemic of opioid misuse continues at a rate similar to the previous 5 years, with 4.5 million people aged 12 or older engaging in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2014). Data from the following year cannot be compared due to a refinement in the definition of misuse to mean any way not directed by a doctor, but shows that the epidemic continues at significantly high rate (Hughes et al., 2016). With the new definition of misuse, 12.5 million Americans or 4.7% of the American population age twelve or older had misuse of pain relievers in the past year. Of those people, approximately 63% said that their opioid misuse was to relieve pain. Past year use of heroin continued to rise and was reported by 828,000 people age twelve or older in 2015. The rate of overdose deaths is also steadily increasing. In 2015, over 22,000 deaths involved prescription opioids, which is an increase from 19,000 in 2014, which is nearly a 16% increase (CDC, 2016).

Although the number of people receiving treatment for opioid use disorder has increased, the number of people being treated is still only a small fraction of those needing treatment: Past year treatment for prescription pain reliever misuse was still only received by 746,000 individuals in 2013 (SAMHSA, 2014).

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder that offers patients a more widely available, accessible, convenient treatment option as compared to traditional opioid treatment programs (OTP) (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). The Drug Addiction Treatment Act (DATA) of 2000—an amendment to the Controlled Substances Act — allowed physicians who are not part of an OTP to prescribe buprenorphine with additional training and a waiver to the Controlled Substances Act. The Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 (CARA) added nurse practitioners and physician assistants to the list of providers who can train to prescribe buprenorphine and become waivered.

The law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour buprenorphine training conducted by an approved organization in order to prescribe it; the required training for nurse practitioners and physician assistants is 24 hours. While buprenorphine is relatively safe, there are risks of overdose and death due to buprenorphine and there is a risk of diversion (FSMB, 2013), which, in addition to skills needed to prescribe the medication effectively for each individual, are among the reasons for the mandatory training.

This buprenorphine training activity prepares providers to prescribe buprenorphine safely and effectively to address needs of the millions of Americans with opioid use problems. The activity has been developed to meet the DATA 2000 training guidelines as defined in Public Law 106-310-106th Congress as well as the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 (S 524, Title III, Section 303-114th Congress) and is endorsed by the American Society of Addiction Medicine, one of the approved training organizations named in DATA 2000. The activity content was initially based upon SAMHSA’s 2004 publication Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) #40: Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction and follow the Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office (FSMB, 2013). It has been edited to SAMHSA’s Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder – Review and Update (2016), ASAM’s National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medication in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use (2015), and the CDC’s guidelines on opioid treatment (Dowell et al., 2015) as well as CARA 2016. The courses are regularly reviewed and updated by ASAM members who are experts in the field of addiction medicine and buprenorphine treatment.

Practice Gap References

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-48. 2014; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-03-12.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

21 USC § 812 . Schedules of controlled substances. www.law.cornell.edu/uscode. 2012. Available at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/812#b_3 Accessed on: 2013-12-04.

Actavis Elizabeth LLC. Buprenorphine HCl and naloxone HCl prescribing information. Actavis. 2013. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=110562 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Addiction Treatment Forum. History of Buprenorphine. Addiction Treatment Forum Website. 2013. Available at: http://atforum.com/2013/02/history-of-buprenorphine/ Accessed on: 2015-04-09.

Agency Medical Director’s Group. Interagency guideline on opioid dosing for chronic non-cancer pain. http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/. . Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/files/opioidgdline.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

Al-Tayyib A, Rice E, Rhoades H, Riggs P. Association between prescription drug misuse and injection among runaway homeless youth. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 134: 406-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24300900 Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Alford D, LaBelle C, Richardson J, O’Connell J, Hohl C, Cheng D, Samet J. Treating Homeless Opioid Dependent Patients with Buprenorphine in an Office-Based Setting. Society of General Internal Medicine. 2007; 22: 171-176. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1824722/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892816/

Alford DP, Labelle CT, Kretsch N, Bergeron A, Winter M, Botticelli M, Samet JH. Collaborative care of opioid-addicted patients in primary care using buprenorphine: five-year experience. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2011; 171(5): 425-31. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3059544/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Alho H, Sinclair D, Vuori E, Holopainen A. Abuse liability of buprenorphine-naloxone tablets in untreated IV drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 88(1): 75-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055191 Accessed on: 2013-12-09.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications.. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/opioid-safe-storage-and-disposal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-07.

Amass L, Ling W, Freese TE, et al. Bringing buprenorphine-naloxone detoxification to community treatment providers: the NIDA Clinical Trials Network field experience. Am J Addict. 2004; 13 Suppl 1: S42-66. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1255908/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/5/1078.abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013; 5th ed.: . Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). Drug Testing As A Component Of Addiction Treatment and Monitoring Programs and in Other Clinical Settings. ASAM.org. 2010. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2011/12/15/drug-testing-as-a-component-of-addiction-treatment-and-monitoring-programs-and-in-other-clinical-settings Accessed on: 2013-12-31.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Arfken CL, Johanson CE, di Menza S, Schuster CR. Expanding treatment capacity for opioid dependence with office-based treatment with buprenorphine: National surveys of physicians. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2010; 39(2): 96-104. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598829 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

ASAM . Advancing access to addiction medications . Advancing access to addiction medications: Implications for opioid addiction treatment . 2013. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/aaam_implications-for-opioid-addiction-treatment_final Accessed on: 2015-05-29.

ASAM Board of Directors. ASAM Public Policy Statement: Definition of Addiction. American Society of Addiction Medicine Website. 2011. Available at: http://www.asam.org/for-the-public/definition-of-addiction Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

ASAM. Summary of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act. ASAM Advocacy. 2016. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/issues/opioids/summary-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act Accessed on: 2016-09-19.

Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO). Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome: How States Can Help Advance the Knowledge Base for Primary Prevention and Best Practices of Care. ASTHO. 2014. Available at: http://www.astho.org/Prevention/NAS-Neonatal-Abstinence-Report/ Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://www.talkingalcohol.com/files/pdfs/WHO_audit.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-21.

Baca CT, Yahne CE. Smoking cessation during substance abuse treatment: what you need to know. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009; 36(2): 205-19. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18715746 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

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Volkow N. NIDA-supported science leads to first FDA-approved medication for opioid withdrawal . NIDA. 2018. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2018/05/nida-supported-science-leads-to-first-fda-approved-medication-opioid-withdrawal Accessed on: 2018-05-23.

Waknine Y. FDA Approves 7-Day Buprenorphine Pain Patch. Medscape Today. 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/724626 Accessed on: 2011-07-13.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm391465.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Walsh SL. Clinically Relevant Pharmacology of Buprenorphine. UK HealthCare CECentral. 2009. Available at: http://www.cecentral.com/ Accessed on: 2011-07-18.

Wang J, Christo PJ. The influence of prescription monitoring programs on chronic pain management. Pain Physician. 2009; 12: 507-515. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19461820 Accessed on: 2014-05-24.

Warden D, Riggs P, Min S, Mikulich-Gilbertson S, Tamm L, Trello-Rishel K, Winhusen T. Major depression and treatment response in adolescents with ADHD and substance use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012; 120(1-3): 214-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3245790/ Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Warner M , Hedegaard H , Chen LH. Trends in drug-poisoning deaths involving opioid analgesics and heroin: United States, 1999-2012. NCHS health e-stats. 2014. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/drug_poisoning/drug_poisoning_deaths_1999-2012.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief. 2009; NCHS Data Brief, no. 22: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed on: 2011-04-15.

Wartenberg A. Management of Buprenorphine Side Effects. American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Available at: http://www.psychiatry.org/home Accessed on: 2013-12-12.

Weiss RD, Potter JS, Fiellin DA, Byrne M, Connery HS, Dickinson W, Gardin J, Griffin ML, Gourevitch MN, Haller DL, Hasson HL, Huang Z, Jacobs P, Kosinski AS, Lindblad R, McCance-Katz EF, Provost SE, Selzer J, Somoza EC, Sonne SC, Ling W. Adjunctive Counseling During Brief and Extended Buprenorphine-Naloxone Treatment for Prescription Opioid Dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012; 68(12): 1238-1246. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3470422/ Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Weiss RD, Potter JS, Griffin ML, Provost SE, Fitzmaurice GM, McDermott KA, Srisarajivakul EN, Dodd DR, Dreifuss JA, McHugh RK, Carroll KM. Long-term outcomes from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25818060 Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Wish ED, Artigiani D, Billing A, Hauser W, et al. The emerging buprenorphine epidemic in the United States. J Addict Dis. 2012; 31(1): 3-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22356664 Accessed on: 2012-07-19.

Woody G, Poole S, Subramaniam G, et al. Extended vs short-term buprenorphine-naloxone for treatment of opioid-addicted youth: a randomized trail. AMA. 2008; 300(17): 2003-11. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610690/ Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Wu LT, Woody GE, Yang C, Blazer DG. Subtypes of nonmedical opioid users: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 112: 69–80. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2967592/ Accessed on: 2015-04-15.

Xi ZX, Stein EA. GABAergic mechanisms of opiate reinforcement. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002; 37(5): 485-494. Available at: http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/content/37/5/485 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Yokell MA, Zaller ND, Green TC, Rich JD. Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone persion, misuse, and illicit use: an international review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2011; 4: 28-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154701/ Accessed on: 2013-12-05.

Zacny J, Bigelow G, Compton P, Foley K, Iguchi M, Sannerud C. College on Problems of Drug Dependence task force on prescription opioid non-medical use and abuse: position statement. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 69(3): 215-232. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12633908 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Zubkoff L, Shiner B, Watts BV. Staff Perceptions of Substance Use Disorder Treatment in VA Primary Care–Mental Health Integrated Clinics. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2016; 70: 44-49. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2016.07.011 Accessed on: 2016-12-02.

Öhlin L, Fridell M, Nyhlén A. Buprenorphine maintenance program with contracted work/education and low tolerance for non-prescribed drug use: a cohort study of outcome for women and men after seven years. BMC Psychiatry. 2015; 15:56 (ISSN: 1471-244X). 2015; 15(56): ISSN: 1471-244X. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244X/15/56 Accessed on: 2015-09-17.

Professional practice gaps exist when there is a disparity between educational needs and the ideal or desired level of knowledge, competence, and performance. Only around 6% of U.S. physicians are waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for office-based treatment of opioid use disorder (SAMHSA, 2017). Physicians are likely to encounter patients having this disorder due to the size of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older engage in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2017). Many people who need treatment are still not receiving it (SAMHSA, 2016). Federal law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour training in order to prescribe buprenorphine (CARA, 2016; DATA, 2000). Providing physician this training will prepare them to treat the many patients having opioid use disorder.

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder for which 8 hours of training by an approved organization is required by law in order to prescribe it (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). Providing information on all aspects of buprenorphine treatment will help address this knowledge need. Moreover, buprenorphine treatment has a complex protocol that must be followed for successful outcomes and to minimize risks of overdose, death, and persion (FSMB, 2013), which validates the need for mandatory training in order to prescribe it. Understanding of clinical protocol and how to apply it will help address this competence need. Lastly, despite the demonstrated effectiveness of buprenorphine, a relatively small percentage (3%) of U.S. physicians are trained and credentialed to prescribe it (NAABT, 2017). Experience with interactive case scenarios helps address the performance need of translating competence in following the protocol into actual practice.

Practice Gap References

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

NAABT. The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. NAABT The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://www.naabt.org/tl/buprenorphine-suboxone-treatment.cfm Accessed on: 2018-02-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-52. 2017; HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/topics/data_outcomes_quality/nsduh-ppt-09-2017.pdf Accessed on: 2018-02-20.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

United States Congress. Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. United States Congress. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/docs/dwp_buprenorphine.htm Accessed on: 2011-06-29.

This is the Physician Activity Description.

This is the Activity Description for NP/PA